Lupinus albus

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Lupinus albus
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Eudicots
Clade:	Rosids
Order:	Fabales
Family:	Fabaceae
Subfamily:	Faboideae
Genus:	Lupinus
Species:	L. albus
Binomial name
Lupinus albus L.

Lupinus albus, commonly known as the white lupin or field lupine, is a member of the genus Lupinus in the family Fabaceae. It is a traditional pulse cultivated in the Mediterranean region.

Description

The white lupin is an annual, more or less pubescent plant, 30 to 120 cm high, that is widely distributed in the Mediterranean region. It grows naturally throughout the southern Balkans, the Italian mainland region of Apulia, the islands of Sicily, Corsic, and Sardinia, and the Aegean Sea, as well as in Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, and western Anatolia. It is found in meadows, pastures, and grassy slopes, on both sandy and acidic soil. The white lupin is cultivated throughout the Mediterranean region and in Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Syria, Europe, North and South America, and tropical and southern Africa. The ancient culture of white lupin under the local name "hanchcoly" was practiced until recently in western Georgia.

White lupin is distinct within the large and polymorphous genus Lupinus for a small variation of morphological characteristics. However, it has wide, intraspecific variability in physiological plant properties: the duration of vernalization time and growth rate, photoperiodic sensitivity, shape tolerance, drought resistance, and cold- and winter-hardiness. There are winter and spring forms of white lupin. The duration of the growing period under spring sowing varies from 106 to 180 days, seed mass per plant varies from 2.2 g to 40 g, green mass yield per from 9 g to 250 g, protein content in the seed from 35.0% to 53.7%, and oil content from 6.2% to 12.0%.

Classification

1. Subsp. graecus (Boiss. et Spun.) Franko et Silva
2. Subsp. termis (Forsk.) Ponert.
   1. Var. abissinicus Libk.
   2. Var. subroseus Libk.
   3. Subsp. albus L.
3. Var. albus
4. Var.vavilovii (Atab.) Kurl. et Stankev.
5. Var vulgaris Libk.
   1. f. libkindae Kurl. et Stankev.^[1]

Cultivation and uses

According to Zohary and Hopf, "even today the white lupin is an appreciated food crop and it is still cultivated in some Mediterranean countries—particularly Egypt."^[2] They list several archeological sites that include Bronze Age Thera and several Roman Egypt sites. Today, lupin is known in Arabic as ترمس termes, and the seeds is a popular street snack in Egypt after being treated with several soakings of water, and then brined.

In Greece, and especially on the island of Crete and in the Peloponnese area, Lupin seeds are a very common snack during the period of lent before Easter. They are normally soaked in seawater for 2–3 hours to mellow the flavour and are consumed raw. In Spain, Portugal, and southern Italy it is a very popular snack (lupini in Italian, tremoços in Portuguese, altramuces or chochos in Spanish, tramussos in Catalan) as well as in some regions of Brazil.

History

The beginning of lupin cultivation in the Old World is often associated with the times of the ancient Egyptian civilization (Zhukovsky, 1929). It is, however, more likely (Kurlovich, 2002) that white lupin was originally introduced into cultivation in ancient Greece where its greatest biodiversity was concentrated and wild-growing forms have been preserved until today (ssp. graecus). On the Balkan Peninsula, representatives of another subspecies of white lupin (ssp. termis and ssp. albus) turned wild and now grow in natural environments. Also, the Grecian genesis of cultivated lupin is testified by lupin's Greek name thermos, which may be translated as "hot"[1]. Today, in many countries, water-soaked and boiled lupin seeds are sold on markets and in bars as snacks (much like sunflower seeds). White lupin dispersed step-by-step from Greece to adjacent countries, in particular, to Egypt and Ancient Rome. The forms with white seeds and pink-and-blue or light-pink flowers (L. termis) spread mainly towards the south (Egypt, Libya, and Palestine), while the forms with white seeds and grayish-blue or white flowers (L. albus) moved to the west (Apennine Peninsula and farther).^[3]

Cultivation

Since ancient times, white lupin has been widespread in the Mediterranean region and in the Middle East due to its soil amelioration properties and because it develops well on acidic soils.^[4] It tolerates a soil acidity up to pH = 6.5, while alkaline or organic soils are not suitable.^[5] The soil must be well drained and loose because lupin is subject to root asphyxia.^[4] White lupin flourishes in the same climate zones as maize, though lupin, except at the beginning of the growing season, requires little water because it has a long tap root.^[5]

Sowing

In quite hot climate zones, as in Italy, sowing occurs in October–November, after the soil is ploughed to bury the stubble of the previous crop, often a cereal. 100–150 kg/ha of seeds are used to obtain a final plant population of 30 plants per square meter, in rows 30 cm apart. Due to its branched structure, lupin can adapt to different sowing densities, compensating for a lower density with a higher branch growth.^[4] In colder zones, where lupin cannot survive the winter, white lupin is sowed in the spring between March and April. The soil must be prepared as soon as possible after the winter break. The seedbed must be sufficiently fine, particularly in organic farming where mechanical weeding is done (so that harrowing the displacement of clods does not harm the plants). In the case of mechanical weeding, higher plant density (about 100 plants / m2), sowing about 200 kg seeds/ha, at a sowing depth of 3–4 cm is recommended.^[5] In regions where lupin is not indigenous, if it is cultivated for the first time in a soil or if the soil pH is higher than 6.5, lupin seeds must be inoculated with the nitrogen-fixing bacterium Rhizobium lupini. Soil acidity is an important factor for nitrogen fixation.^[5]

Fertilization

Due to the symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, white lupin does not need nitrogen fertilization, though it requires about 40 kg P₂O₅/ha and 60 kg K₂O/ha. Fertilization in compost or composted manure is better than in fresh manure. Due to its long tap root, white lupin can exploit phosphorus reserves in the soil. The crop rotation for white lupin ideally lasts at least four, ideally five, years and often lupin is grown after a cereal crop. Lupin is a good preculture since it leaves in the field about 50 kg nitrogen/ha.^[5]

Weed control

Lupin does not compete well with weeds, particularly in the colder zones, because it closes the stand^{[clarification needed]} only in late summer. Mechanical weeding is feasible, as is hoeing if the rows are wide enough.^[5] Chemical weeding is also used, by means of herbicides applied for other grain legumes.^[4]

Yield

Depending on the climate zone of cultivation, pods ripen from June–July to late August. Seeds do not ripen all at once and are harvested when 90% of the pods are brown. To harvest with a combine harvester the ideal seed water content is 13-16%. Good yields are between 2 t/ha and 3,5 t/ha,^[5] although average yields are lower.^[4]

Diseases

As there are numerous diseases affecting Lupinus albus, management is complex and important. Higher yields can be obtained by sowing early in the year, but this strategy can increase the impact of pests and diseases.^[6]

Fungal diseases are often controlled with fungicides.^[6] To control the other diseases the most effective practices are crop rotation and the use of disease-free seed.^[6]

Fungi

The following three fungi are lupin-specific and fully adapted to the presence of alkaloids:^[7]

Pleichaeta setosa causes brown-leaf spot. It is a problem of autumn-sown crops. Therefore, with the use of winter-hardy plant and the selection of frost tolerant plants, the tolerance of the genetic material has increased.

Uromyces lupinicolus is rust, which causes defoliation and reduces the biomass production. It is mainly developed during warm and dry summer periods. The chemical treatment with triazole fungicides is effective. There is no breeding program for rust tolerant plants.

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is a seed-borne fungus disease.^[7] Therefore, it is present early in the plant's lifecycle,^[7] which can kill the plant before it flowers, resulting in a null yield.^[7] Resistance has been found in some cultivars.^[8] The most efficient way to control this fungi is through seed treatment.^[9]

Viruses^[6]

Bean mosaic virus is transmitted by aphids and with infected seed. It is the major viral disease for Lupinus albus. A major disease for other lupines is cucumber mosaic virus. Lupinus albus is immune to this virus.

Pests

Phorbia platura is the only insect with significant impact on lupinus albus.^[7] "The larvae damage the roots and hypocotyls and may destroy the crop."^[7] The only useful treatment is the use of soil insecticides or seed treatment with systemic insecticides.^[7]

Aphids are also a problem. Mostly they are found during budding and early pod stages.^[6] They reduce crop yield and the numbers of flowers and also lead to pod formation^[clarify].^[6] They can also transmit diseases.^[6]

Other pests and impacts^[6]

• bean seedling maggots, which cause seedlings to wilt and die
• beetle and moth larvae, which kill seedlings
• slugs, which attack leaves
• thrips, which attack flowers and leaves
• mired bugs, which attack young seed pods
• budworms, which feed on pods and seeds

Nutritional aspects^[10]

The chemical composition of lupin seeds depends on the cultivation region except for the protein content which is independent from environmental conditions. White lupin seeds contain a high amount of protein. The net protein utilization is slightly lower than that of animal protein. The fats have a 2:1 ratio of omega-6 (w-6) to omega-3 (w-3), whereby oleic acid (w-9) accounts for about 50% of the fat. The carbohydrates found in the seeds are mainly soluble and insoluble fibre and the starch content is very low. Therefore, lupin seeds have a low glycaemic index. The main macroelements found in white lupin seeds are K, Mn, and Mg, and the prevailing microelements are Ca, Fe, and Na.

The white lupin seeds have a low or very low content of antinutrients. Their removal is possible through food processing treatments (e.g., dehulling, germinating, cooking, soaking, fermentation, and extraction). Total alkaloid content in sweet white lupin cultivars does not currently exceed 0.02%. Some of the sulphur-containing amino acids (about 4% of the proteins) may have an allergenic effect. The main allergens are Lup-1 (a conglutin b, vicilin-like protein), and Lup-2 (conglutin a, legumin-like protein).

Animal nutrition

Ruminants

Although an excessive use of L. albus, or other lupine species, can cause unwanted side-effects, this species seems to be promising to use as a feeding supplement for animals including livestock.^[7] While L. albus is used in Australia to provide sheep fed, with low-grade roughage with protein in the form of a whole-grain feed supplement, there are concerns regarding product quality and safety. This is due to the susceptibility of some lupine cultivars towards Diaporthe toxica.^[14] This fungus can cause a fatal intoxication with lupine seed, called lupinosis, which appears to mainly affect sheep.^[15]

While there were no major negative health effects found in cattle, it has been found that supplementation with L. albus can cause a decrease in milk protein concentration and milk protein yield in dairy cows.^[6] This must be considered when lupine seeds are used as a substitute for other protein sources in the diet of the ruminant. Nonetheless, roasted seeds of L. albus appear to be a good source of rumen protected fatty acids.^[6]

Non-ruminants

As opposed to the advantages in ruminant diets, L. albus should not be considered as an optimal feed for pigs. Research indicates that a diet based on white lupine results in poorer growth rates due to reduced feed intake, compared with other lupine species, such as L. angustifolius.^[7] As experiments showed, the feeding of L. albus can negatively affect the digestibility and the nutrient uptake in piglets.^[16]

Although broilers can tolerate a high share of lupine seeds in their diet, excess use should be avoided, as it causes moist faeces which negatively affects hygiene and promotes health risks.^[7] It has been shown that L. albus has the potential to partly replace the use of soybean in poultry production.^[17]

White lupin seeds have also been long recommended to feed rabbits, as a good source of protein and energy. The seeds are also a potentially useful feed for aquaculture, to replace partially fish meal or soybean meal.^[18]

See also

• Lupin bean and Lupinus for species and genus information, and for other uses of the lupin bean.

References

• Kurlovich B.S. (2002) Lupins. Geography, classification, genetic resources and breeding, St. Petersburg, "Intan", 468p.
• Gladstones, J.S. 1974. Lupinus of the Mediterranean region and Africa. Bull. West. Austr. Depart. of Agr. 1974. N 26. 48 p.
• Gladstones, J.S. 1998. Distribution, Origin, Taxonomy, History and Importance. In: J.S. Gladstones et al. (eds.), Lupin as Crop Plants. Biology, Production and Utilization, 1-39.
• Zhukovsky, P.M. 1929. A contribution to the knowledge of genus Lupinus Tourn. Bull. Apll. Bot. Gen. Pl.-Breed., Leningrad-Moscow, XXI, I:16-294.
• Zohary, D. and Hopf, M. (2000) Domestication of plants in the Old World, third edition. Oxford: University Press.

Specific

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lupinus albus.

• Classification for Kingdom Plantae Down to Species Lupinus albus L.
• pfaf.org
• Seed proteome reference maps at Lupin Protein Team