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Some modern prescription drugs are based on plant extracts rather than whole plants. The phytochemicals may be synthesized, compounded or otherwise transformed to make pharmaceuticals. Examples of such derivatives include aspirin, which is chemically related to the salicylic acid found in white willow. The opium poppy is a major industrial source of opiates, including morphine. Few traditional remedies, however, have translated into modern drugs, although there is continuing research into the efficacy and possible adaptation of traditional herbal treatments.
A natural gum sourced from hardened sap of various species of acacia tree used in ancient birth control as well as a binder and emulsifier for medicinal compounds.[3][4]
Its seeds, leaves, bark, and flowers have been used medicinally for many centuries for treating joint pain, bladder and gastrointestinal problems, fever, leg cramps, and other conditions. It may be useful for treating chronic venous insufficiency. The raw plant materials are toxic unless processed.[7]
Historically used to treat liver diseases, it is still used in alternative medicine today. Other modern applications by herbalists include treatments for pimples, bronchitis and gout.[17]
Roots have been used in the traditional Austrian medicine internally as tea or tincture for treatment of disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, nervous system, and also against fever, infections, and flu.[18]
Used as an anti-inflammatory[23] and for osteoarthritis.[24] The US Food and Drug Administration has classified Arnica montana as an unsafe herb because of its toxicity.[25] It should not be taken orally or applied to broken skin where absorption can occur.[25]
Although toxic, was used historically in Italy by women to enlarge their pupils, as well as a sedative, among other uses. The name itself means "beautiful woman" in Italian.[27]
Used in India to treat worms, malaria, rheumatism and skin infections among many other things. Its many uses have led to neem being called "the village dispensary" in India.[28]
Flowers have been used in the traditional Austrian medicine internally as tea (or the leaves as a salad) for treatment of disorders of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tract.[18]
Used worldwide since ancient times as treatment for various conditions and ailments including pain, inflammation, gastrointestinal issues such as IBS, muscle relaxation, anxiety, Alzheimer's and dementia, ADHD, autism, cancer, cerebral palsy, recurring headaches, Crohn's disease, depression, epilepsy, glaucoma, insomnia, and neuropathy among others.[34]
Type of chili that has been used as both food and medicine for thousands of years. Uses have included reducing pain and swelling, lowering triglyceride and cholesterol levels and fighting viruses and harmful bacteria, due to high levels of Vitamin C.[35][36][37]
Its active ingredient, capsaicine, is the basic of commercial pain-relief ointments in Western medicine. The low incidence of heart attack in Thais may be related to capsaicine's fibronolytic action (dissolving blood clots).[38]
Used in a wide variety of roles in traditional medicine, including in particular as a broad-spectrum internal and external antimicrobial, for liver disorders, for intestinal worms and other parasites and as an immune-system stimulant.[40][41]
Mild stimulant used for thousands of years in Yemen, and is banned today in many countries. Contains the amphetamine-like substance cathinone.[citation needed]
Along with other citruses, it has a long history of use in Chinese and Indian traditional medicine.[47] In contemporary use, honey and lemon is common for treating coughs and sore throat.
Spice that lends its distinctive yellow color to Indian curries, has long been used in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine to aid digestion and liver function, relieve arthritis pain, and regulate menstruation.[52]
The Cypripedium species have been used in native remedies for dermatitis, tooth aches, anxiety, headaches, as an antispasmodic, stimulant and sedative. However, the preferred species for use are Cyp. parviflorum and Cyp.acaule, used as topical applications or tea.[53]
It came into use in treating cardiac disease in late 18th century England in spite of its high toxicity.a Its use has been almost entirely replaced by the pharmaceutical derivative Digoxin, which has a shorter half-life in the body, and whose toxicity is therefore more easily managed.[54] Digoxin is used as an antiarrhythmic agent and inotrope.[55]
This plant and other species of Echinacea have been used for at least 400 years by Native Americans to treat infections and wounds, and as a general "cure-all" (panacea). It is currently used for symptoms associated with cold and flu.[56]
Used by the Chumash people to keep airways open for proper breathing.[62] The US Forest Service profile[63] for Eriodictyon crassifolium provides information on species distribution; taxonomic relationships; ecological and evolutionary considerations for restoration; growth form and distinguishing traits; habitat characteristics; projected future suitable habitat; growth, reproduction and dispersal; biological interactions; ecological genetics; seed characteristics, germination requirements and processing; and plant uses including agriculture, restoration, and traditional products, plus an extensive bibliography. It is part of Riverside-Corona Resource Conservation District's resource materials collection on native plant recommendations for southern California ecoregions.
Used as coca tea or chewed, traditionally as a stimulant to overcome fatigue, hunger, thirst, and altitude sickness.[64] Also used as an anesthetic and analgesic.[65]
Leaves were widely used in traditional medicine as a febrifuge.[67] Eucalyptus oil is commonly used in over-the-counter cough and cold medications, as well as for an analgesic.[68]
Although açai berries are a longstanding food source for indigenous people of the Amazon, there is no evidence that they have effectiveness for any health-related purpose.[74]
Bark (and to a lesser extent the fruit) has been used as a laxative, due to its 3 – 7% anthraquinone content. Bark for medicinal use is dried and stored for a year before use, as fresh bark is violently purgative; even dried bark can be dangerous if taken in excess.[76]
Traditionally thought to be good for the eyes and to remove skin blemishes. In modern times herbalists use it to treat skin diseases and conjunctivitis, as well as to cleanse the kidneys. However, Howard (1987) warns that fumitory is poisonous and should only be used under the direction of a medical herbalist.[77]
It has been used as a "lung herb".[82] Other traditional uses include as an expectorant, astringent, and to treat bronchitis.[83] The essential oil of the plant has been used for centuries as a general tonic for colds and coughs, and to relieve congestion of the mucous membranes.
It produces a specific kind of tannins called hamamelitannins. One of those substances displays a specific cytotoxic activity against colon cancer cells.[85]
The leaves are used as herbal medicine to alleviate cough and fever, pain, and general gastrointestinal disorders as well as to cure dermatologic disorders. Similarly, the fruit juice and oils can be used in the treatment of liver disease, gastrointestinal disorders, chronic wounds or other dermatological disorders.[86]
Although used traditionally by Native Americans to treat skin diseases and ulcers, there is no scientific evidence to support the use of goldenseal for treating any disease.[88]
It is the major source of the chemical compound shikimic acid, a primary precursor in the pharmaceutical synthesis of anti-influenza drug oseltamivir (Tamiflu).[93]
It was traditionally used as an antiseptic and for mental health purposes. It was also used in ancient Egypt in mummifying bodies. There is little scientific evidence that use of lavender affects health.[100]
The leaves are purported to lower cholesterol, and treat kidney and urinary tract ailments, although there is insufficient scientific evidence for its efficacy.[104]
It has been used over history by Australian aboriginal people. Modern usage is primarily as an antibacterial or antifungal agent, but there is insufficient scientific evidence for such effects.[105]
It is used for a variety of purposes in traditional medicine; tulsi is taken in many forms: as herbal tea, dried powder, fresh leaf or mixed with ghee. Essential oil extracted from Karpoora tulasi is mostly used for medicinal purposes and in herbal cosmetics.[112]
Its oil has been used since the 1930s for eczema, and more recently as an anti-inflammatory, but there is insufficient evidence for it having any effect.[113]
Asian ginseng may affect glucose metabolism and lower blood sugar levels, but the poor quality of research prevents conclusions about such effects.[114]
The plant is the plant source of morphine, used for pain relief. Morphine made from the refined and modified sap is used for pain control in people with severe cancer.[115]
The plant has been used for centuries in the South Pacific to make a ceremonial drink with sedative and anesthetic properties, with potential for causing liver injury.[117]
The plant is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of insomnia and anxiety, despite serious safety concerns.[118] A 2006 study suggested medicinal potential.[119]
It is used frequently in herbal teas and other herbal remedies.[120] A tea from the leaves is used as a highly effective cough medicine. In the traditional Austrian medicine Plantago lanceolata leaves have been used internally (as syrup or tea) or externally (fresh leaves) for treatment of disorders of the respiratory tract, skin, insect bites, and infections.[18]
The extracts and purified platycoside compounds (saponins) from the roots may exhibit neuroprotective, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-allergy, improved insulin resistance, and cholesterol-lowering properties.[121]
It has a rich history of use in traditional medicine. It is traditionally used to treat diarrhea; however, evidence of its effectiveness is very limited.[123][124]
Uses in folk medicine have been recorded in the Middle East, its leaves being used to treat ailments such as constipation, colic and inflamed eyes.[127]
In Western herbalism the root is often used for treating anemia, due to its high level of iron.[130] The plant will help with skin conditions if taken internally or applied externally to things like itching, scrofula, and sores. It is also used for respiratory conditions, specifically those with a tickling cough that is worse when exposed to cold air. It mentions also passing pains, excessive itching, and that it helps enlarged lymphs.[131]
Plant source of salicylic acid, white willow is like the chemical known as aspirin, although more likely to cause stomach upset as a side effect than aspirin itself which can cause the lining of the stomach to be destroyed. Used from ancient times for the same uses as aspirin.[132]
Sandalwood oil has been widely used in folk medicine for treatment of common colds, bronchitis, skin disorders, heart ailments, general weakness, fever, infection of the urinary tract, inflammation of the mouth and pharynx, liver and gallbladder complaints and other maladies.[136]
Extracts of the plant are used to ease the symptoms of malaria. The boiled juice or a tea made from the leaves or the whole plant is taken to relieve fever and other symptoms. It is also used for dysentery, pain, and liver disorders.[143] A tea of the leaves is taken to help control diabetes in Peru and other areas.[144] Laboratory tests indicate that the plant has anti-inflammatory properties.[145]
It has been used as a vulnerary and to reduce inflammation.[150] It was also used internally in the past, for stomach and other ailments, but its toxicity has led a number of other countries, including Canada, Brazil, Australia, and the United Kingdom, to severely restrict or ban the use of comfrey.[151]
The plant is used to treat bronchitis and cough. It serves as an antispasmodic and expectorant in this role. It has also been used in many other medicinal roles in Asian and Ayurvedic medicine, although it has not been shown to be effective in non-respiratory medicinal roles.[156]
It is used in southeast Mexico in the region of Tabasco as a cold herbal tea, which is named Matali.[158]Skin irritation may result from repeated contact with or prolonged handling of the plant, particularly from the clear, watery sap (a characteristic unique to T. zebrina as compared with other types).
It has long been used to treat symptoms of menopause, and digestive ailments. More recently, it has been used to treat diabetes, loss of appetite and other conditions.[161]
It has been used in the traditional Austrian medicine internally (as tea or fresh leaves) to treat disorders of the kidneys and urinary tract, gastrointestinal tract, locomotor system, skin, cardiovascular system, hemorrhage, influenza, rheumatism, and gout.[18]
V. tinus has medicinal properties. The active ingredients are viburnin (a substance or more probably a mixture of compounds) and tannins. Tannins can cause stomach upset. The leaves when infused have antipyretic properties. The fruits have been used as purgatives against constipation. The tincture has been used lately in herbal medicine as a remedy for depression. The plant also contains iridoidglucosides.[175]
It is one of many viola plant species containing cyclotides. These small peptides have proven to be useful in drug development due to their size and structure giving rise to high stability. Many cyclotides, found in Viola tricolor are cytotoxic.[176] This feature means that it could be used to treat cancers.[177][176]
The plant's long, brown, tuberous roots are used in traditional medicine. In Ayurveda, the berries and leaves are applied externally to tumors, tubercular glands, carbuncles, and ulcers.[181]
Ginger is effective for the relief of nausea.[184][185]
Databases
Manhã EM, Silva MC, Alves MG, Almeida MB, Brandão MG (October 3, 2008). "PLANT - A bibliographic database about medicinal plants". Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia. 18 (4): 614–617. doi:10.1590/S0102-695X2008000400020.
Duke J. "Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases". Retrieved 2011-09-29.
"Protabase: Useful Plants of Tropical Africa". Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. Archived from the original on 2011-12-16. Retrieved 2011-09-29. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
^Digitalis use in the United States is controlled by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and can only be prescribed by a physician. Misuse can cause death.
This encyclopedia is not a substitute for medical advice nor a complete description of these herbs, their dangers (up to and including death), and their (in)compatibility with alcohol or other drugs.
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Further reading
Bown D (1995). Encyclopedia of herbs and their uses. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN978-0-7894-0184-7.
Mitchell W, Bastyr JB (2003). Plant medicine in practice: using the teachings of John Bastyr. Churchill Livingstone. ISBN978-0-443-07238-3.
Harrod Buhner, Stephen (1996). Sacred plant medicine: explorations in the practice of indigenous herbalism. Roberts Rinehart Publishers. ISBN978-1570980916.
Cech RA, Cech SK, Gunter A (2000). Making Plant Medicine. Horizon Herbs. ISBN978-0-9700312-0-4.
Hoffmann D (2003). Medical herbalism: the science and practice of herbal medicine (Google eBook). Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. ISBN978-0-89281-749-8.
Garrett JT (2003). The Cherokee herbal: native plant medicine from the four directions. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. ISBN978-1-879181-96-0.
Cowan E (1996). Plant Spirit Medicine: The Healing Power of Plants. Granite Publishing. ISBN978-1-893183-11-7.
Neuwinger HD (2000). African traditional medicine: a dictionary of plant use and applications. Stuttgart, Germany: Medpharm Scientific. ISBN978-3-88763-086-7.