Islam in South Asia

Desi Muslims
United Nations cartographic map of South Asia
Total population
c. 630+ million (2023)
(33% of the population) Increase[1]
Regions with significant populations
Pakistan230,000,000[2] (2023)
India200,000,000[3] (2021)
Bangladesh150,400,000[4] (2022)
Afghanistan41,128,771[5][6] (2022)
Sri Lanka2,131,240[7][8] (2023)
Nepal1,483,060[9] (2021)
Maldives560,000[10][11] (2021)
Bhutan727[12][13] (2020)
Religions
Predominantly Sunni Islam
Languages
Liturgical (Universal)
Common (Regional)
Traditional (Community)

Islam is the second-largest religion in South Asia, with more than 640 million Muslims living there, forming about one-third of the region's population. Islam first spread along the coastal regions of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka, almost as soon as it started in the Arabian Peninsula, as the Arab traders brought it to South Asia. South Asia has the largest population of Muslims in the world, with about one-third of all Muslims living here.[16][17] Islam is the dominant religion in half of the South Asian countries (Pakistan, Maldives, Bangladesh and Afghanistan). It is the second largest religion in India and third largest in Sri Lanka and Nepal.

On the Indian subcontinent, Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the peninsula, in today's Kerala state. Arabs traded with Malabar even before the birth of Muhammad. Native legends say that a group of Sahaba, under Malik Ibn Deenar, arrived on the Malabar Coast and preached Islam. According to that legend, the first mosque of India was built by the mandate of the last King of Chera Perumals of Makotai, who accepted Islam and received the name Tajudheen during the lifetime of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632).[18][19][20] On a similar note, Tamil Muslims on the eastern coast also claim that they converted to Islam in Muhammad's lifetime. According to Qissat Shakarwati Farmad, the Masjids at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayini, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest Masjids in Indian Subcontinent.[21][22] [23] Historicaly, the Barwada Mosque in Ghogha, Gujarat built before 623 CE, Cheraman Juma Mosque (629 CE) in Methala, Kerala and Palaiya Jumma Palli (630 CE) in Kilakarai, Tamil Nadu are three of the first mosques in South Asia.[24][25][26][27][22]

The first incursion occurred through sea by Caliph Umar's governor of Bahrain, Usman ibn Abu al-Aas, who sent his brother Hakam ibn Abu al-Aas to raid and reconnoitre the Makran region[28] around 636 CE or 643 AD long before any Arab army reached the frontier of India by land. Al-Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who attacked Makran in the year 649 AD, was an early partisan of Ali ibn Abu Talib.[29] During the caliphate of Ali, many Hindu Jats of Sindh had come under the influence of Shi'ism[30] and some even participated in the Battle of Camel and died fighting for Ali.[29] According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep islands, situated just to the west of Malabar Coast, by Ubaidullah in 661 CE. After the Rashidun Caliphate, Muslim political dynasties came to power.[31][32]

Origins

Islamic influence first came to be felt in the Indian subcontinent during the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders. Arab traders used to visit the Malabar region to trade even before Islam had been established in Arabia. According to Historians Henry Miers Elliot and John Dowson in their book The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians, the first ship bearing Muslim travelers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 CE. The first Indian mosque is thought to have been built in 629 CE, purportedly at the behest of an unknown Chera dynasty ruler, during the lifetime of Muhammad (c. 571–632) in Kodungallur, in district of Thrissur, Kerala by Malik Bin Deenar. In Malabar, Muslims are called Mappila.

Henry Rawlinson, in his book Ancient and Medieval History of India (ISBN 81-86050-79-5), claims the first Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century. This fact is corroborated, by J. Sturrock in his South Kanara and Madras Districts Manuals,[33] and also by Haridas Bhattacharya in Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV.[34]

The Arab merchants and traders became the carriers of the new religion and they propagated it wherever they went.[35] It was, however, the subsequent expansion of the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent over the next millennia that established Islam in the region.

According to Derryl N. Maclean, a link between Sindh and early partisans of Ali or proto-Shi'ites can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who traveled across Sind to Makran in the year 649AD and presented a report on the area to the Caliph. He supported Ali, and died fighting on his behalf alongside Sindhi Jats.[36]

During the reign of Ali, many Jats came under the influence of Islam.[37] Jats fought against the Muslims in the battle of Chains in 634[38] and later also fought on the side of Ali in the Battle of the Camel in 656 under their chief, Ali B. Danur.[39] After the Islamic conquest of Persia was completed, the Muslim Arabs then began to move towards the lands east of Persia and in 652 captured Herat.[40]

History

Political dynasties (Umayyads - 1947)

The Age of the Islamic Gunpowders dominating the western, central and South Asia.

Under the Umayyads (661 – 750 AD), many Shias sought asylum in the region of Sindh, to live in relative peace in the remote area. In 712 CE, a young Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region for the Umayyad Empire, to be made the "As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-Mansurah.[41][42][43][44][45] Arab tribes became rebellious in Sindh in the early 9th century during the Abbasid period. During a period of strife in 841-2 between Yemeni and Hijazi tribes, 'Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari's Hijazi faction assassinated the pro-Yemeni Abbasid governor of Sindh, Imran bin Musa Barmaki,[46] leaving Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari as the de facto governor of Sindh. According to al-Ya'qubi, Umar's request to be formally appointed governor was granted in 854 by the Abbasid caliph Al-Mutawakkil.[47] Following the death of Al-Mutawakkil in 861, 'Umar bin Aziz al-Habbari then established himself as an independent ruler, although he continued to read the Friday prayers in the name of the Abbasid caliph, thereby nominally pledging allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad.[citation needed]

By the mid-800s, the Banu Munabbih (also known as the Banu Sama), who claimed descent from the Prophet Muhammad's Quraysh tribe came to rule Multan, and established the Emirate, which ruled for the next century.[48] At the opening of 10th century, Ibn Rusta was first to report a well established Emirate of Multan. Muhammad III, whose full name was Muhammad bin al-Qasim bin Munabbih, was reported by Al-Biruni to be the first of the Banu Munabbih (Samid) rulers of Multan - he conquered Multan and issued silver dammas bearing his Hindu epithet "Mihiradeva" ("Sun god") on the reverse.[48] By the mid 10th century, Multan had come under the influence of the Qarmatians. The Qarmatians had been expelled from Egypt and Iraq following their defeat at the hands of the Abbasids there. They wrested control of the city from the pro-Abbasid Amirate of Banu Munabbih,[49] and pledged allegiance to the Fatimid Caliphate based in Cairo instead of Abbasid Caliphate at Baghdad.[50] By the end of the 10th century CE, the region was ruled by several Hindu Shahi kings who would be subdued by the Ghaznavids. Sabuktigin's son, Mahmud of Ghazni, expanded the Ghaznavid Empire to the Amu Darya, the Indus River and the Indian Ocean in the east and to Rey and Hamadan in the west. Under the reign of Mas'ud I, the Ghaznavid dynasty began losing control over its western territories to the Seljuk dynasty after the Battle of Dandanaqan, resulting in a restriction of its holdings to modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan (Punjab and Balochistan).

Sunni Islam arrived in North India in the 12th century via the invasions of Ghurids conquest. Ala al-Din Husayn's nephews, however, Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad and Muhammad of Ghor expanded the Ghurid domains on an unprecedented scale. While, Ghiyasuddin was occupied with the Ghurid expansion in the west, his sibling Muhammad of Ghor along with his Turkic slaves began raiding in the east and by the turn of the twlefth century expanded the Ghurid empire till Bengal in the east, while the Ghurids reached till Gorgan in the west under Ghiyath al-Din Ghori. The foundation of the Delhi Sultanate was laid by the Ghurid conqueror Muhammad Ghori who routed the Rajput Confederacy led by Ajmer ruler Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192 near Tarain, after suffering a reverse against them earlier.[51] As a successor to the Ghurid dynasty, the Delhi Sultanate was originally one among a number of principalities ruled by the Turkic slave-generals of Muhammad Ghori, including Yildiz, Aibak and Qubacha, that had inherited and divided the Ghurid territories amongst themselves.[52] After a long period of infighting, the Mamluks were overthrown in the Khalji revolution, which marked the transfer of power from the Turks to a heterogeneous Indo-Muslim nobility.[53][54] Khalji and Tughlaq rule saw a new wave of rapid Muslim conquests deep into South India.[55][56] The sultanate finally reached the peak of its geographical reach during the Tughlaq dynasty, occupying most of the Indian subcontinent under Muhammad bin Tughluq.[57] This was followed by decline due to Hindu reconquests, Hindu kingdoms such as the Vijayanagara Empire asserting independence, and new Muslim sultanates such as the Bengal Sultanate breaking off.[58][59] In 1526, the Sultanate was conquered and succeeded by the Mughal Empire. According to Ibn Batuta, the Khaljis encouraged conversion to Islam by making it a custom to have the convert presented to the Sultan who would place a robe on the convert and award him with bracelets of gold.[60] During Delhi Sultanate's Ikhtiyar Uddin Bakhtiyar Khilji's control of Bengal, Muslim missionaries in India achieved their greatest success, in terms of number of converts to Islam.[61]

The Mughal Empire was able to conquer almost the entirety of South Asia. Although religious tolerance was seen during the rule of emperor Akbar,[62] the reign under emperor Aurangzeb witnessed the full establishment of Islamic sharia and the re-introduction of Jizya (a special tax imposed upon non-Muslims) through the compilation of the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri.[63] The Mughals, already suffering a gradual decline in the early 18th century, was invaded by the Afsharid ruler Nader Shah.[64] The Mughal decline provided opportunities for the Maratha Empire, Sikh Empire, Mysore Kingdom, Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad and Nizams of Hyderabad to exercise control over large regions of the Indian subcontinent.[65] Eventually, after numerous wars sapped its strength, the Mughal Empire was broken into smaller powers like Shia Nawab of Bengal, the Nawab of Awadh, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Kingdom of Mysore, which became the major Asian economic and military power on the Indian subcontinent.[citation needed] Muslim power quickly vaporized in the early 18th century after their defeat in wars[66] and attacks.[67] Mughals were replaced with Rajputs, the Marathas, Sikhs in Punjab, the Jats and smaller Muslim states competing for power with the British East India Company. Islamic scholars reacted slowly to the British rule. The British authorities' westernisation policies effectively destroyed the exclusive hold of the ulama over education and curtailed their administrative influence. After Mughal India's collapse, Tipu Sultan's Kingdom of Mysore based in South India, which witnessed partial establishment of sharia-based economic and military policies i.e. Fathul Mujahidin, replaced Bengal ruled by the Nawabs of Bengal as South Asia's foremost economic territory.[68][69] The partition was outlined in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Raj, i.e., Crown rule in India. Hyderabad, the last major Muslim princely state, was annexed in 1948 by the modern Republic of India.[70]

A panorama in 12 folds showing a fabulous Eid ul-Fitr procession by Muslims in the Mughal Empire.

Modern states (1947 - Present)

The two self-governing independent Dominions of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The partition of India displaced between 10 and 20 million people along religious lines with estimates of the loss of life up to two million in the newly constituted dominions. The ideological character of Pakistan has been disputed, with Jinnah's 11 August speech apparently supportive of the notion that the state was formed simply to protect Muslim interests but the ulama envisioning Pakistan as an Islamic state. After Pakistan's general election, the 1973 Constitution was created by the elected Parliament,[71] which declared Pakistan as an Islamic Republic and Islam as its state religion. In the years preceding Zia-ul-Haq's coup, Pakistan's leftist Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto faced vigorous opposition under the revivalist banner of Nizam-e-Mustafa ("Rule of the prophet").[72] After Zia-ul-Haq's Islamisation and Musharraf's military rule, the 2008 election brought back regular political parties instead of the religious parties.

In Afghanistan, the 1931 Constitution made Hanafi Shariah the state religion, while the 1964 Constitution simply prescribed that the state should conduct its religious ritual according to the Hanafi school. The 1977 Constitution declared Islam the religion of Afghanistan, but made no mention that the state ritual should be Hanafi. In Bangladesh, Islam became the state religion by a constitutional amendment in 1988. For Muslims in India, Pakistan was a triumph which instantly turned into a defeat.[73] By voting in the 1945-6 elections they had stated that Islam required a state of its own.[74] But they were to live an Islamic life without fulfillment after 1947.[75] India, unusually for new countries in the 1950s, successfully sustained a lively democracy. Muslims in the 1960s voted for the Congress, which solicited them, but since then have voted for whichever party appears likely to cater to Muslim interests. Muslims were stereotyped negatively with disloyalty and Pakistani sympathies, particularly after the 1980s. This was partially a tactic to unite Hindus and partly a surrogate for government opposition.[76] Hindu nationalist groups and complicit state officials campaigned against the Babri Mosque, allegedly constructed on Rama's birthplace.[76] A pogrom took place in Gujarat in 2002.[77] The defeat of the BJP brought in a more accommodating government under which a committee was created on the Muslims' socio-economic status. The committee's Sachar report refuted the perception of Muslim "appeasement" by showing the poor and underrepresented status of India's Muslims. Despite individual cases of success, the report pointed out significant barriers faced by the large Muslim population.[78] In India, the administration of Islamic affairs in each state is headed by the Mufti of the State under the supervision of the Grand Mufti of India.[citation needed]

Conversions

The Islamic ambitions of the sultans and Mughals had concentrated in expanding Muslim power and looting, not in seeking converts. Evidence of the absence of systematic programs for conversion is the reason for the concentration of South Asia's Muslim populations outside the main core of the Muslim polities[79] in the northeast and northwest regions of the subcontinent, which were on the peripheries of Muslim states.[80]

The Sufis did not preach egalitarianism, but played an important role in integrating agricultural settlements with the larger contemporary cultures. In areas where Sufis received grants and supervised clearing of forestry, they had the role of mediating with worldly and divine authority. Richard M. Eaton has described the significance of this in the context of West Punjab and East Bengal, the two main areas to develop Muslim majorities.[81] The partition was eventually made possible because of the concentration of Muslim majorities in northwest and northeast India.[82] The overwhelming majority of the subcontinent's Muslims live in regions which became Pakistan in 1947.[83]

These nominal conversions to Islam, brought about by regional Muslim polities, were followed by reforms, especially after the 17th century, in which Muslims integrated with the larger Muslim world. Improved transport services in the nineteenth century brought Muslim masses into contact with Mecca, which facilitated reformist movements stressing Quranic literalism and making people aware of the differences between Islamic commands and their actual practices.[84]

Islamic reformist movements, such as the Faraizi movement, in the nineteenth century rural Bengal aimed to remove indigenous folk practices from Bengali Islam and commit the population exclusively to Allah and Muhammad.[85] Politically the reform aspect of conversion, emphasizing exclusiveness, continued with the Pakistan movement for a separate Muslim state[84] and a cultural aspect was the assumption of Arab culture.[86]

Demographics

Muslims Percentage by Country[87][88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95]
Country Percent
 Maldives
100%
 Afghanistan
99.7%
 Pakistan
96.47%
 Bangladesh
91.04%
 India
15.0%
 Sri Lanka
9.8%
   Nepal
5.09%
 Bhutan
0.1%

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and the Maldives are Muslim-majority countries. Muslim population in India is 14.5% which still makes them the largest Muslim population outside the Muslim-majority countries.[96]

Controversy

Muslim communities in South Asia apply a system of social stratification. The stratification that operates among Muslims arises from concerns other than in the concepts of pure and impure that are integral to the Indian caste system. It developed as a result of relations between the foreign conquerors and upper caste Hindus who converted to Islam (Ashraf) (also known as tabqa-i ashrafiyya) and the local lower caste converts (Ajlaf) as well as the continuation of the Indian caste system among local converts. Non-Ashrafs are backward caste converts. The neologism "Pasmanda" includes Ajlaf and Arzal Muslims, and Ajlafs' statuses are defined by them being the descendants of converts to Islam and are also defined by their pesha (profession). These terms are not used in local, sociological vocabulary in places such as Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh, and therefore tell us very little about the functioning of Muslim society.

The Biradari System is how social stratification manifests itself in Pakistan, and to an extent also India. The South Asian Muslim caste system also includes hierarchical classifications of khandan (dynasty, family, or lineage descent) and nasal (a group based on blood ties and lineage).

See also

Notes

References

Citations

  1. ^ Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (2013). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-415-44851-2.
  2. ^ Amin, Tahir (23 May 2023). "Pakistan's population attains new mark amid economic slump". Brecorder. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  3. ^ Diamant, Jeff. "The countries with the 10 largest Christian populations and the 10 largest Muslim populations". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  4. ^ "Census 2022: Bangladesh population now 165 million". www.dhakatribune.com. 27 July 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  5. ^ "World Bank Open Data". World Bank Open Data. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  6. ^ "Afghanistan". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 8 October 2022. (Archived 2022 edition)
  7. ^ "Sri Lanka population (2023) live — Countrymeters". countrymeters.info.
  8. ^ Department of Census and Statistics,The Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka-2011 Archived 7 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine
  9. ^ "The Kathmandu Post | Read online latest news and articles from Nepal". kathmandupost.com. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  10. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
  11. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
  12. ^ Pew Research Center - Global Religious Landscape 2010 - religious composition by country Archived 5 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
  13. ^ "Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project - Research and data from Pew Research Center". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  14. ^ Al-Jallad, Ahmad (30 May 2011). "Polygenesis in the Arabic Dialects". Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. BRILL. doi:10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_SIM_000030. ISBN 9789004177024.
  15. ^ Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 27, footnote 3.
  16. ^ Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (1 January 2013). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. ISBN 9780415448512.
  17. ^ "10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 2 April 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
  18. ^ "World's second oldest mosque is in India". Bahrain tribune. Archived from the original on 6 July 2006. Retrieved 9 August 2006.
  19. ^ Ibn Nadim, "Fihrist", 1037
  20. ^ "History". Malik Deenar Grand Juma Masjid. Archived from the original on 13 January 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  21. ^ Prange, Sebastian R. Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast. Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.
  22. ^ a b Kumar(Gujarati Magazine), Ahmadabad,July 2012,P 444
  23. ^ Metcalf 2009, p. 1.
  24. ^ "Oldest Indian mosque: Trail leads to Gujarat". The Times of India. 5 November 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
  25. ^ "Oldest Indian mosque: Trail leads to Gujarat". The Times of India. 6 November 2016. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
  26. ^ Sharma, Indu (22 March 2018). "Top 11 Famous Muslim Religious Places in Gujarat". Gujarat Travel Blog. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
  27. ^ Prof.Mehboob Desai,Masjit during the time of Prophet Nabi Muhammed Sale Allahu Alayhi Wasalam,Divy Bhasakar,Gujarati News Paper, Thursday, column 'Rahe Roshan',24 May,page 4
  28. ^ Al Baldiah wal nahaiyah vol: 7 page 141
  29. ^ a b MacLean, Derryl N. (1989), Religion and Society in Arab Sind, pp. 126, BRILL, ISBN 90-04-08551-3
  30. ^ S. A. A. Rizvi, "A socio-intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India", Volo. 1, pp. 138, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).
  31. ^ Levy-Rubin, Milka (2011). Non-Muslims in the Early Islamic Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–103. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511977435. ISBN 978-1108449618.
  32. ^ Jo Van Steenbergen (2020). "2.1". A History of the Islamic World, 600–1800: Empire, Dynastic Formations, and Heterogeneities in Pre-Modern Islamic West-Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1000093070.
  33. ^ Sturrock, J., South Canara and Madras District Manual (2 vols., Madras, 1894-1895)
  34. ^ ISBN 81-85843-05-8 Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV
  35. ^ "Mujeeb Jaihoon". JAIHOON.COM. Archived from the original on 22 June 2006.
  36. ^ Derryl N. Maclean (1989). Religion and Society in Arab Sind. E. J. BRILL. p. 126. ISBN 90-04-08551-3.
  37. ^ Ibn Athir, Vol. 3, pp. 45–46, 381, as cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "The Shia Muslims", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).
  38. ^ Abdulla, Ahmed (1987). An Observation: Perspective of Pakistan. Tanzeem Publishers. p. 137.
  39. ^ Zakeri, Mohsen (1995). Sasanid Soldiers in Early Muslim Society: The Origins of 'Ayyārān and Futuwwa. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 127. ISBN 978-3-447-03652-8.
  40. ^ "Afghanistan | history – geography". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
  41. ^ "History in Chronological Order". Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of Pakistan. Archived from the original on 23 July 2010. Retrieved 15 January 2010.
  42. ^ "Figuring Qasim: How Pakistan was won". Dawn. 19 July 2012. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  43. ^ "The first Pakistani?". Dawn. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  44. ^ "Muhammad Bin Qasim: Predator or preacher?". Dawn. 8 April 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  45. ^ Paracha, Nadeem F. "Why some in Pakistan want to replace Jinnah as the founder of the country with an 8th century Arab". Scroll.in. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
  46. ^ Nadvi, Syed Sulaiman (1962). Indo-Arab Relations: An English Rendering of Arab Oʾ Hind Ke Taʾllugat. Institute of Indo-Middle East Cultural Studies.
  47. ^ Boivin, Michel (2008). Sindh Through History and Representations: French Contributions to Sindhi Studies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-547503-6.
  48. ^ a b Rafiq, A.Q.; Baloch, N.A. The Regions of Sind, Baluchistan, Multan and Kashmir: The Historical, Social and Economic Setting (PDF). UNESCO. ISBN 978-92-3-103467-1.
  49. ^ Osimi, Muhammad (1992). History of Civilizations of Central Asia (vol. 4, part-1). Motilal Banarsidass, 1992. ISBN 9788120815957.
  50. ^ H. A. Rose (1997) [First published 1883]. A glossary of the tribes and castes of the Punjab and North-West. Vol. 1. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 489. ISBN 9788185297682.
  51. ^ Sugata Bose; Ayesha Jalal (2004). Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy. Psychology Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-415-30786-4. It was a similar combination of political and economic imperatives which led Muhmmad Ghuri, a Turk, to invade India a century and half later in 1192. His defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan, a Rajput chieftain, in the strategic battle of Tarain in northern India paved the way for the establishment of first Muslim sultante
  52. ^ K. A. Nizami (1992). A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206-1526). Vol. 5 (2nd ed.). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. p. 198.
  53. ^ Mohammad Aziz Ahmad (1939). "The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India. (1206-1290 A.d.)". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 3. Indian History Congress: 832–841. JSTOR 44252438.
  54. ^ Satish Chandra (2004). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One. Har-Anand Publications. ISBN 9788124110645.
  55. ^ Sugata Bose, Ayesha Jalal (1998). Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy. Psychology Press. p. 28. ISBN 9780415169523.
  56. ^ M.S. Ahluwalia (1999). "Rajput Muslim Relations (1200-1526 A.D.)". In Shyam Singh Ratnawat; Krishna Gopal Sharma (eds.). History and Culture of Rajasthan (From Earliest Times upto 1956 A.D.). Centre for Rajasthan Studies, University of Rajasthan. p. 135. OCLC 264960720. The Khaiji rule proved much stronger for the Rajput principalities ... A new wave of invasions and conquests began, which ended only when practically the whole of India had been bought under the sway of the Delhi kingdom.
  57. ^ Muḥammad ibn Tughluq Encyclopædia Britannica
  58. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 177.
  59. ^ Smith, Vincent A. (1920). The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911. Oxford University Press. p. 217.
  60. ^ Thomas Walker Arnold (1913). The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith. p. 212.
  61. ^ Thomas Walker Arnold (1913). The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith. pp. 227–228.
  62. ^ Jackson, Roy (2010). Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State. Routledge. pp. 9, 11. ISBN 978-1-136-95036-0.
  63. ^ Jamal Malik (2008), Islam in South Asia: A Short History, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004168596, pp. 194-197
  64. ^ "An Outline of the History of Persia During the Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722-1922)". Edward G. Browne. London: Packard Humanities Institute. p. 33. Retrieved 24 September 2010.
  65. ^ Ian Copland; Ian Mabbett; Asim Roy; et al. (2012). A History of State and Religion in India. Routledge. p. 161.
  66. ^ John Clark Marshman (2010) [First published 1876]. History of India from the earliest period to the close of the East India Company's Government. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108021043.
  67. ^ Grewal, Royina (2007). In the Shadow of the Taj: A Portrait of Agra. Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-1431-0265-6.
  68. ^ Binita Mehta (2002). Widows, Pariahs, and Bayadères: India as Spectacle. Bucknell University Press. pp. 110–111. ISBN 978-0-8387-5455-9.
  69. ^ B. N. Pande (1996). Aurangzeb and Tipu Sultan: Evaluation of Their Religious Policies. University of Michigan. ISBN 978-81-85220-38-3.
  70. ^ B. Cohen (2007). Kingship and Colonialism in India's Deccan: 1850-1948. Springer Publishing. pp. 159–161. ISBN 978-0-230-60344-8.
  71. ^ Diamantides, Marinos; Gearey, Adam (2011). Islam, Law and Identity. Routledge. p. 196. ISBN 9781136675652.
  72. ^ Nasr, Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr (1996). Mawdudi and the Making of Islamic Revivalism. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 45–6. ISBN 0195096959.
  73. ^ Hardy 1972, p. 254.
  74. ^ Hardy 1972, p. 254-255.
  75. ^ Hardy 1972, p. 255.
  76. ^ a b Metcalf 2009, p. 31.
  77. ^ Metcalf 2009, p. 31-32.
  78. ^ Metcalf 2009, p. 32.
  79. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2002, p. 6.
  80. ^ Eaton 1993, p. 115.
  81. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2002, p. 7.
  82. ^ Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 27.
  83. ^ Eaton 1993, p. 119.
  84. ^ a b Eaton 1985, p. 121.
  85. ^ Eaton 1993, p. 282.
  86. ^ Eaton 1985, p. 122.
  87. ^ "CIA – The World Factbook – Afghanistan". Cia.gov. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
  88. ^ "The Future of the Global Muslim Population". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 15 January 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
  89. ^ "CIA – The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
  90. ^ "Indian Census". Censusindia.gov.in. Archived from the original on 14 May 2007. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  91. ^ "Maldives". Law.emory.edu. 21 February 1920. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  92. ^ Maldives – Religion, countrystudies.us
  93. ^ "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". cia.gov. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
  94. ^ Population by religions Archived 17 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine, Statistics Division of the Government of Pakistan
  95. ^ "Table 1". 13 May 2007. Archived from the original on 13 May 2007. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  96. ^ Metcalf 2009, p. xvii–xviii.

Sources

  • Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7
  • Delage, Remy (29 September 2014), "Muslim Castes in India", Books & Ideas, College De France
  • Eaton, Richard (1985), "Approaches to the Study of Conversion to Islam in India", in Richard C. Martin (ed.), Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies (1st ed.), Tucson: University of Arizona PressB, pp. 107–123
  • Eaton, Richard Maxwell (1993), The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-08077-5
  • Hardy, Peter (1972), The Muslims of British India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09783-3
  • Jalal, Ayesha; Bose, Sugata (1998), Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy (1st ed.), Sang-e-Meel Publications
  • Jalal, Ayesha (2014), The Struggle for Pakistan: A Muslim Homeland and Global Politics, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-05289-5
  • Khanam, Azra (2013), Muslim Backward Classes: A Sociological Perspective, SAGE, ISBN 978-81-321-1650-9
  • Kugle, Scott A. (2004), "Islam in South Asia", in Richard C. Martin (ed.), Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World: M–Z, index, Macmillan Reference USA, pp. 634–641, ISBN 978-0-02-865605-2
  • Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004) [First published 1986], A History of India (4th ed.), Routledge, ISBN 0-415-32919-1
  • Levesque, Julien (2020), Debates on Muslim Caste in North India and Pakistan, HAL
  • Ludden, David (2002), India and South Asia: A Short History, Oneworld, ISBN 978-1-85168-237-9
  • Maddison, Angus (2007), Contours of the World Economy 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-1-4008-3138-8
  • Metcalf, Barbara D.; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2002), A Concise History of India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-63974-3
  • Metcalf, Barbara D. (2009), Islam in South Asia in Practice, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-1-4008-3138-8
  • Muzaffar Alam; Phillip B. Calkins. "North India under Muslim hegemony, c. 1200–1526". India. Encyclopædia Britannica.
  • Robb, Peter (2002), A History of India (1st ed.), Palgrave, ISBN 978-0-333-69129-8
  • Robinson, Francis (2010), "South Asia to 1919", The Islamic World in the Age of Western Dominance, The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 5, Cambridge University Press, pp. 212–239, ISBN 978-1-316-17578-1
  • Stein, Burton (1998), A History of India (1st ed.), Blackwell Publishers, ISBN 978-0-631-20546-3
  • Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition of India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85661-4
  • Talbot, Ian (2016), A History of Modern South Asia: Politics, States, Diasporas, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-21659-2
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islam_in_South_Asia&oldid=1215092827"