Eastward spread of Western learning
The eastward spread of Western learning (simplified Chinese: 西学东渐; traditional Chinese: 西學東漸) refers to the spread of Western technologies and ideologies in China since the late Ming dynasty, which is contrast with the westward spread of Eastern learning (simplified Chinese: 东学西传; traditional Chinese: 東學西傳) that introduced Chinese technologies and ideologies to the West.[1][2][3]
Naming
The term "Western learning" (simplified Chinese: 西学; traditional Chinese: 西學) was coined by the Jesuit missionaries to China, who used the phrase in their book titles, such as Julius Aleni’s Summary of Western Learning, to refer to the knowledge they brought from the West.[4]: 2 According to Liang Qichao, Western learning consists of an extremely wide range of topics including mathematics, mechanics, electrical science, chemistry, acoustics, optics, astronomy, geology, medical science, history, geography, legal studies, mining, military strategy and knowledge. Since the late Qing period, Chinese researchers began to review and detailedly describe the process during which the Western knowledge was brought into China.[4]: 3 In the 1900s, the term "eastward spread of Western learning" was coined in Shanghai-based newspaper Shun Pao, as a description of the emerging national awareness among the Chinese people as a result of prevailing Western influences in China. In 1915, the Chinese translation of Yung Wing's autobiography My Life in China and America, which used the term in its Chinese title, further popularized the use of the term.[5] Since the 1980s, the term has frequently appeared in various scholarly articles to describe the spread of Western technologies and ideologies in China.[6]
History
Jesuit China missions
Before the industrial revolution, China had been the most powerful and prosperous country in the world.[7] However, the direct contact of Chinese and Western civilizations did not occur until the arrival of Jesuit missionaries in China in 1600. While bringing back Chinese philosophies, especially Confucianism, to the Enlightenment Europe, these missionaries were the pioneers of spreading Western civilization to China.[8] According to the Chinese encyclopedia Complete Library of the Four Treasuries, Qiankun Tiyi [Explication of the Structure of Heaven and Earth] by Matteo Ricci was the first book that introduced Western learning to China.[9] The mission was widely regarded the first wave of the eastward spread of Western learning.[10]
With the popularization of Christianity in China, the increasing Western knowledge in China contributed to the rise of Shixue (simplified Chinese: 实学; traditional Chinese: 實學), which focused more on practice and evidence. The scholars of Shixue reshaped the school education with the introduction of mathematics in addition to the traditional Four Books and Five Classics.[10] However, this trend was halted when Kangxi Emperor of Qing decided to ban the religion due to the religion's lack of respect to Chinese rites in 1717.[11] Subsequently, the Roman Catholic Church canceled the Jesuit mission to China in 1773.[10]
Late Qing period and Republican era
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The British invasion of China in the 1840s forced China to open up to the world, which led to the second wave of the eastward spread of Western learning. The failures of two Opium Wars stimulated the Chinese government to absorb Western learning. During the process, the Chinese gradually reduced their resistance the Western learning and gradually adopted the Western learning, with the principle of "Chinese Learning as Substance, Western Learning for Application." Under this principle, more focus was given to the Western weapon and machine. Meanwhile, missionaries in China continued to spread Western ideologies in China.
As China was defeated by Japan in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1897, Chinese thought leaders began to seek ways to save China from elimination, which drove them to active seek and absorb Western knowledge and demanded political reforms. Japan became a new source of Western learning during the time.
Since the late Qing dynasty, government-funded overseas Chinese students contributed to this movement, contributing to the criticism of traditional Chinese culture and the modernization of China,[12] especially during the New Culture Movement.[13][14][15] One of the result of the movement is the Sinicization of Western ideologies including Marxism.[16] As a reflection on the century of humiliation that China had undergone, which was characterized by foreign concessions in China, and the success of Meiji Restoration of Japan, the Chinese people began calling for a full-scale westernization of China and debated with those who defended the traditional Chinese culture.[7]
See also
- Westward spread of Eastern learning
References
- ^ Liu, Dachun (2018). Western Learning Spreads Eastward (in Simplified Chinese). Beijing: China Renmin University Press. ISBN 978-7-300-26325-0. OCLC 1089442491.
- ^ Kuang, Shuping (2016-09-21). "Eastward Transmission of Western Learning and the Evolution of Modern Sports in Shanghai, 1843–1949". The International Journal of the History of Sport. 33 (14): 1606–1625. doi:10.1080/09523367.2017.1288106. ISSN 0952-3367. S2CID 152205041.
- ^ Koerbs, Christoph (2008), "East and West: China in the Transmission of Knowledge from East to West", in Selin, Helaine (ed.), Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 712–717, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9121, ISBN 978-1-4020-4425-0, retrieved 2022-06-14
- ^ a b Xiong, Yuezhi (2013). The eastward dissemination of western learning in the late Qing dynasty . Volume 1. Singapore: Silkroad Press. ISBN 978-981-4332-79-8. OCLC 834558621.
- ^ Yung, Wing (1973). 西学东渐记 (in Traditional Chinese). Taipei: Wen Hai Press Company. OCLC 23471698.
- ^ Lu, Di (2017). ""西学东渐"一词始于清末而非民初". China Terminology (1).
- ^ a b Li, Yining (2016-05-06). "新文化运动与西学东渐". Guangming Daily – via Peking University.
- ^ Cheng, Anne (2014). "Philosophy and the French Invention of Sinology: Mapping Academic Disciplines in Nineteenth Century Europe". China Report. 50 (1): 11–30. doi:10.1177/0009445513516533. ISSN 0009-4455. S2CID 142991146.
- ^ Zhao, Yunze; Sun, Ping (2018-05-11). A History of Journalism and Communication in China. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-51931-7.
- ^ a b c Lin, Li-Nan; Yang, Yong-Bo (2008). "The Gradual Spread of Western Learning to China and the Change in Practical Education Trend during the Period of Late Ming and Early Qing". Journal of Shenyang Normal University (Social Science Edition). 32 (5): 118–122. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-5450.2008.05.032.
- ^ Carter, James (2021-02-10). "The Yongzheng Emperor and Christianity in China". SupChina. Retrieved 2022-06-14.
- ^ Lin, Ren-Jie Vincent (2016-10-14). "Eastward Expansion of Western Learning: A study of Westernisation of China's modern education by Chinese government overseas-study scholarships". Educational Philosophy and Theory. 48 (12): 1203–1217. doi:10.1080/00131857.2016.1182462. ISSN 0013-1857. S2CID 147793292.
- ^ Zhitian, Luo (2019-10-02). "Wholeness and individuality: Revisiting the New Culture Movement, as symbolized by May Fourth". Chinese Studies in History. 52 (3–4): 188–208. doi:10.1080/00094633.2019.1654802. ISSN 0009-4633. S2CID 211429408.
- ^ Sturniolo, Anthony (2016-08-01). "Influences of Western Philosophy and Educational Thought in China and their Effects on the New Culture Movement". History Theses.
- ^ Gao, Yang; Tian, Zhaojian (2016). "Philosophical translation in China and its influence on chinese social development in the last century" (PDF). PORTES, Revista mexicana de estudios sobre la Cuenca del Pacífico. 10 (20): 247–268. ISSN 1870-6800.
- ^ Xinyan, Wang (2013-08-01). "The Eastward Spread of Western Learning and the Sinicization of Marxist Philosophy". Social Sciences in China. 34 (3): 5–19. doi:10.1080/02529203.2013.820553. ISSN 0252-9203. S2CID 145333912.