Classification of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

The Americas, Western Hemisphere
Cultural regions of North American people at the time of contact
Early Indigenous languages in the US

The classification of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas is based upon cultural regions, geography, and linguistics. Anthropologists have named various cultural regions, with fluid boundaries, that are generally agreed upon with some variation. These cultural regions are broadly based upon the locations of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas from early European and African contact beginning in the late 15th century. When Indigenous peoples have been forcibly removed by nation-states, they retain their original geographic classification. Some groups span multiple cultural regions.

Canada, Greenland, United States, and northern Mexico

In the United States and Canada, ethnographers commonly classify Indigenous peoples into ten geographical regions with shared cultural traits, called cultural areas.[1] Greenland is part of the Arctic region. Some scholars combine the Plateau and Great Basin regions into the Intermontane West, some separate Prairie peoples from Great Plains peoples, while some separate Great Lakes tribes from the Northeastern Woodlands.

Arctic

Inuktitut dialect map
Early Indigenous languages in Alaska

Subarctic

Pacific Northwest coast

Northwest Plateau

Chinook peoples

Interior Salish

Sahaptin people

Other or both

  • Cayuse, Oregon, Washington
  • Celilo (Wayampam), Oregon
  • Cowlitz, Washington
  • Kalapuya, northwest Oregon
  • Klamath, Oregon
  • Kutenai (Kootenai, Ktunaxa), British Columbia, ID, and MT
  • Lower Snake people: Chamnapam, Wauyukma, Naxiyampam
  • Modoc, formerly California, now Oklahoma and Oregon
  • Molala (Molale), Oregon
  • Nicola Athapaskans (extinct), British Columbia
  • Palus (Palouse), Idaho, Oregon, and Washington
  • Upper Nisqually (Mishalpan), Washington

Great Plains

Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains are often separated into Northern and Southern Plains tribes.

Eastern Woodlands

Northeastern Woodlands

Southeastern Woodlands

  • Acolapissa (Colapissa), Louisiana and Mississippi[24]
  • Ais, eastern coastal Florida[25]
  • Alafay (Alafia, Pojoy, Pohoy, Costas Alafeyes, Alafaya Costas), Florida[26]
  • Amacano, Florida west coast[27]
  • Apalachee, northwestern Florida[28]
  • Atakapa (Attacapa), Louisiana west coast and Texas southwestern coast[28]
  • Avoyel ("little Natchez"), Louisiana[19][24]
  • Bayogoula, southeastern Louisiana[19][24]
  • Biloxi, Mississippi[24][28]
  • Caddo Confederacy, Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas[28][30]
    • Adai (Adaizan, Adaizi, Adaise, Adahi, Adaes, Adees, Atayos), Louisiana and Texas[24]
    • Cahinnio, southern Arkansas[30]
    • Doustioni, north central Louisiana[30]
    • Eyeish (Hais), eastern Texas[30]
    • Hainai, eastern Texas[30]
    • Hasinai, eastern Texas[30]
    • Kadohadacho, northeastern Texas, southwestern Arkansas, northwestern Louisiana[30]
    • Nabedache, eastern Texas[30]
    • Nabiti, eastern Texas[30]
    • Nacogdoche, eastern Texas[30]
    • Nacono, eastern Texas[30]
    • Nadaco, eastern Texas[30]
    • Nanatsoho, northeastern Texas[30]
    • Nasoni, eastern Texas[30]
    • Natchitoches, Lower: central Louisiana, Upper: northeastern Texas[30]
    • Neche, eastern Texas[30]
    • Nechaui, eastern Texas[30]
    • Ouachita, northern Louisiana[30]
    • Tula, western Arkansas[30]
    • Yatasi, northwestern Louisiana[30]
  • Calusa, southwestern Florida[26][28]
  • Cape Fear Indians, North Carolina southern coast[24]
  • Catawba (Esaw, Usheree, Ushery, Yssa),[31] North Carolina, South Carolina[28]
  • Chacato, Florida panhandle and southern Alabama[24]
  • Chakchiuma, Alabama and Mississippi[28]
  • Chatot people (Chacato, Chactoo), west Florida
  • Chawasha (Washa), Louisiana[24]
  • Cheraw (Chara, Charàh), North Carolina
  • Cherokee, western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, later Georgia, northwestern South Carolina, northern Alabama, Arkansas, Texas, Mexico, and currently North Carolina and Oklahoma[32]
  • Chickanee (Chiquini), North Carolina
  • Chickasaw, Alabama and Mississippi,[28] later Oklahoma[32]
  • Chicora, coastal South Carolina[19]
  • Chine, Florida
  • Chisca (Cisca), southwestern Virginia[19] later in Florida[33]
  • Chitimacha, Louisiana[28]
  • Choctaw, Mississippi, Alabama,[28] and parts of Louisiana; later Oklahoma[32]
  • Chowanoc (Chowanoke), North Carolina
  • Congaree (Canggaree), South Carolina[24][34]
  • Coree, North Carolina[19]
  • Croatan, North Carolina
  • Cusabo coastal South Carolina[28]
  • Eno, North Carolina[24]
  • Grigra (Gris), Mississippi[35]
  • Guacata (Santalûces), eastern coastal Florida[26]
  • Guacozo, Florida
  • Guale (Cusabo, Iguaja, Ybaja), coastal Georgia[24][28]
  • Guazoco, southwestern Florida coast[26]
  • Houma, Louisiana and Mississippi[28]
  • Jaega (Jobe), eastern coastal Florida[25]
  • Jaupin (Weapemoc), North Carolina
  • Jororo, Florida interior[26]
  • Keyauwee, North Carolina[24]
  • Koasati (Coushatta), formerly eastern Tennessee,[28] currently Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas
  • Koroa, Mississippi[24]
  • Luca, southwestern Florida coast[26]
  • Lumbee, North Carolina
  • Machapunga, North Carolina
  • Matecumbe (Matacumbêses, Matacumbe, Matacombe), Florida Keys[26]
  • Mayaca, Florida[26]
  • Mayaimi (Mayami), interior Florida[25]
  • Mayajuaca, Florida
  • Mikasuki (Miccosukee), Florida
  • Mobila (Mobile, Movila), northwestern Florida and southern Alabama[28]
  • Mocoso, western Florida[25][26]
  • Mougoulacha, Mississippi[19]
  • Muscogee (Creek), Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, later Oklahoma
    • Abihka, Alabama,[29] later Oklahoma
    • Alabama, formerly Alabama,[29] southwestern Tennessee, and northwestern Mississippi,[24][28] now Oklahoma and Texas
      • Pakana (Pacâni, Pagna, Pasquenan, Pak-ká-na, Pacanas), central Alabama,[24] later Texas[19]
    • Apalachicola Province, (Lower Towns of the Muscogee (Creek) Confederacy), Alabama and Georgia[36]
      • Apalachicola (town), Alabama, Georgia and South Carolina[36]
      • Hitchiti, Alabama and Georgia[36]
      • Oconi, Alabama and Georgia[36]
      • Sabacola (Sawakola, Sabacôla, Savacola, Sawokli), Alabama and Georgia[36]
    • Chiaha, Creek Confederacy, Alabama[29]
    • Eufaula tribe, Georgia, later Oklahoma
    • Kialegee Tribal Town, Alabama, later Oklahoma
    • Osochee (Osochi, Oswichee, Usachi, Oosécha), Creek Confederacy, Alabama[24][29]
    • Talapoosa, Creek Confederacy, Alabama[29]
    • Thlopthlocco Tribal Town, Alabama, Georgia, later Oklahoma
    • Tukabatchee, Muscogee Creek Confederacy, Alabama[29]
  • Naniaba, northwestern Florida and southern Alabama[28]
  • Natchez, Louisiana and Mississippi[28] later Oklahoma
  • Neusiok (Newasiwac, Neuse River Indians), North Carolina[24]
  • Norwood culture, Apalachee region, Florida, c. 12,000–4500 BCE
  • Ofo, Arkansas and Mississippi,[28] eastern Tennessee[24]
  • Okchai (Ogchay), central Alabama[24]
  • Okelousa, Louisiana[24]
  • Opelousas, Louisiana[24]
  • Pacara, Florida
  • Pamlico, formerly North Carolina
  • Pascagoula, Mississippi coast[19]
  • Pee Dee (Pedee), South Carolina[24][37] and North Carolina
  • Pensacola, Florida panhandle and southern Alabama[28]
  • Potoskeet, North Carolina
  • Quinipissa, southeastern Louisiana and Mississippi[29]
  • Roanoke, North Carolina
  • Saluda (Saludee, Saruti), South Carolina[24]
  • Santee (Seretee, Sarati, Sati, Sattees), South Carolina (no relation to Santee Sioux), South Carolina[24]
  • Santa Luces, Florida
  • Saponi, North Carolina,[38] Virginia[18]
  • Saura, North Carolina
  • Saxapahaw (Sissipahaw, Sissipahua, Shacioes), North Carolina[24]
  • Secotan, North Carolina
  • Seminole, Florida and Oklahoma[32]
  • Sewee (Suye, Joye, Xoye, Soya), South Carolina coast[24]
  • Shakori, North Carolina
  • Shoccoree (Haw), North Carolina,[24] possibly Virginia
  • Sissipahaw, North Carolina
  • Sugeree (Sagarees, Sugaws, Sugar, Succa), North Carolina and South Carolina[24]
  • Surruque, east central Florida[39]
  • Suteree (Sitteree, Sutarees, Sataree), North Carolina
  • Taensa, Mississippi[35]
  • Taposa, Mississippi
  • Tawasa, Alabama[40]
  • Tequesta, southeastern coastal Florida[24][26]
  • Timucua, Florida and Georgia[24][26][28]
    • Acuera, central Florida[41]
    • Agua Fresca (or Agua Dulce or Freshwater), interior northeast Florida[41]
    • Arapaha, north central Florida and south central Georgia?[41]
    • Cascangue, coastal southeast Georgia[41]
    • Icafui (or Icafi), coastal southeast Georgia[41]
    • Mocama (or Tacatacuru), coastal northeast Florida and coastal southeast Georgia[41]
    • Northern Utina north central Florida[41]
    • Ocale, central Florida[41]
    • Oconi, interior southeast Georgia[41]
    • Potano, north central Florida[41]
    • Saturiwa, northeast Florida[41]
    • Tacatacuru, coastal southeast Georgia[42]
    • Tucururu (or Tucuru), central? Florida[41]
    • Utina (or Eastern Utina), northeast central Florida[43]
    • Yufera, coastal southeast Georgia[41]
    • Yui (Ibi), coastal southeast Georgia[41]
    • Yustaga, north central Florida[41]
  • Tiou (Tioux), Mississippi[34]
  • Tocaste, Florida[26]
  • Tocobaga, Florida[24][26]
  • Tohomé, northwestern Florida and southern Alabama[28]
  • Tomahitan, eastern Tennessee
  • Topachula, Florida
  • Tunica, Arkansas and Mississippi[28]
  • Utiza, Florida[25]
  • Uzita, Tampa Bay, Florida[44]
  • Vicela, Florida[25]
  • Viscaynos, Florida
  • Waccamaw, South Carolina
  • Waccamaw Siouan, North Carolina
  • Wateree (Guatari, Watterees), North Carolina[24]
  • Waxhaw (Waxsaws, Wisack, Wisacky, Weesock, Flathead), North Carolina and South Carolina[24][37]
  • Westo, Virginia and South Carolina,[19] extinct
  • Winyaw, South Carolina coast[24]
  • Woccon, North Carolina[24][37]
  • Yamasee, Florida, Georgia[19]
  • Yazoo, southeastern tip of Arkansas, eastern Louisiana, Mississippi[24][45]
  • Yuchi (Euchee), central Tennessee,[24][28] then northwest Georgia, now Oklahoma

Great Basin

California

Nota bene: The California cultural area does not exactly conform to the state of California's boundaries, and many tribes on the eastern border with Nevada are classified as Great Basin tribes and some tribes on the Oregon border are classified as Plateau tribes.[57]

Southwest

This region is also called "Oasisamerica" and includes parts of what is now Arizona, Southern Colorado, New Mexico, Western Texas, Southern Utah, Chihuahua, and Sonora

Mexico and Mesoamerica

The regions of Oasisamerica, Aridoamerica, and Mesoamerica span multiple countries and overlap.

Aridoamerica

Aridoamerica region of North America

Mesoamerica

Map of Mesoamerica

Circum-Caribbean

Partially organized per Handbook of South American Indians.[66]

Caribbean

Anthropologist Julian Steward defined the Antilles cultural area, which includes all of the Antilles and Bahamas, except for Trinidad and Tobago.[66]

Central America

The Central American culture area includes part of El Salvador, most of Honduras, all of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama, and some peoples on or near the Pacific coasts of Colombia and Ecuador.[66]

Colombia and Venezuela

The Colombia and Venezuela culture area includes most of Colombia and Venezuela. Southern Colombia is in the Andean culture area, as are some peoples of central and northeastern Colombia, who are surrounded by peoples of the Colombia and Venezuela culture. Eastern Venezuela is in the Guianas culture area, and southeastern Colombia and southwestern Venezuela are in the Amazonia culture area.[66]

  • Abibe, northwestern Colombia
  • Aburrá, central Colombia
  • Achagua (Axagua), eastern Colombia, western Venezuela
  • Agual, western Colombia
  • Amaní, central Colombia
  • Ancerma, western Colombia
  • Andaqui (Andaki), Huila Department, Colombia
  • Andoque, Andoke, southeastern Colombia
  • Antiochia, Colombia
  • Arbi, western Colombia
  • Arma, western Colombia
  • Atunceta, western Colombia
  • Auracana, northeastern Colombia
  • Buriticá, western Colombia
  • Caquetio, western Venezuela
  • Calamari, northwestern Colombia
  • Calima culture, western Colombia, 200 BCE–400 CE
  • Caramanta, western Columbia
  • Carate, northeastern Colombia
  • Carare, northeastern Colombia
  • Carex, northwestern Colombia
  • Cari, western Colombia
  • Carrapa, western Colombia
  • Cartama, western Colombia
  • Cauca, western Colombia
  • Corbago, northeastern Colombia
  • Cosina, northeastern Colombia
  • Catio, northwestern Colombia
  • Cenú, northwestern Colombia
  • Cenufaná, northwestern Colombia
  • Chanco, western Colombia
  • Coanoa, northeastern Colombia
  • Cuiba, east Colombia west Venezuela
  • Cuica, western Venezuela
  • Cumanagoto, eastern Venezuela
  • Evéjito, western Colombia
  • Fincenú, northwestern Colombia
  • Gorrón, western Colombia
  • Guahibo (Guajibo), eastern Colombia, southern Venezuela
  • Guambía, western Colombia
  • Guanes, Colombia, pre-Columbian culture
  • Guanebucan, northeastern Colombia
  • Guazuzú, northwestern Colombia
  • Hiwi, western Colombia, eastern Venezuela
  • Jamundí, western Colombia
  • Kari'ña, eastern Venezuela
  • Kogi, northern Colombia
  • Lile, western Colombia
  • Lache, central Colombia
  • Mariche, central Venezuela
  • Maco (Mako, Itoto, Wotuja, or Jojod), northeastern Colombia and western Venezuela
  • Mompox, northwestern Colombia
  • Motilone, northeastern Colombia and western Venezuela
  • Naura, central Colombia
  • Nauracota, central Colombia
  • Noanamá (Waunana, Huaunana, Woun Meu), northwestern Colombia and Panama
  • Nutabé, northwestern Colombia
  • Opón, northeastern Colombia
  • Pacabueye, northwestern Colombia
  • Pancenú, northwestern Colombia
  • Patángoro, central Colombia
  • Paucura, western Colombia
  • Pemed, northwestern Colombia
  • Pequi people, western Colombia
  • Picara, western Colombia
  • Pozo, western Colombia
  • Pumé (Yaruro), Venezuela
  • Quimbaya, central Colombia, 4th–7th centuries CE
  • Quinchia, western Colombia
  • Sutagao, central Colombian
  • Tahamí, northwestern Colombia
  • Tairona, northern Colombia, pre-Columbian culture, 1st–11th centuries CE
  • Tamalameque, northwestern Colombia
  • Mariche, central Venezuela
  • Timba, western Colombia
  • Timote, western Venezuela
  • Tinigua, Caquetá Department, Colombia
  • Tolú, northwestern Colombia
  • Toro, western Colombia
  • Tupe, northeastern Colombia
  • Turbaco people, northwestern Colombia
  • Urabá, northwestern Colombia
  • Urezo, northwestern Colombia
  • U'wa, eastern Colombia, western Venezuela
  • Waikerí, eastern Venezuela
  • Wayuu (Wayu, Wayúu, Guajiro, Wahiro), northeastern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela
  • Xiriguana, northeastern Colombia
  • Yamicí, northwestern Colombia
  • Yapel, northwestern Colombia
  • Yarigui, northeastern Colombia
  • Yukpa, Yuko, northeastern Colombia
  • Zamyrua, northeastern Colombia
  • Zendagua, northwestern Colombia
  • Zenú, northwestern Colombia, pre-Columbian culture, 200 BCE–1600 CE
  • Zopia, western Colombia

Guianas

The Guianas in northern South America
The position of the Guianas in the Neotropical realm in northern South America

This region includes northern parts Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela, and parts of the Amazonas, Amapá, Pará, and Roraima States in Brazil.

  • Acawai (6N 60W)
  • Acokwa (3N 53W)
  • Acuria (Akurio, Akuriyo), 5N 55W, Suriname
  • Akawaio, Roraima, Brazil, Guyana, and Venezuela
  • Amariba (2N 60W)
  • Amicuana (2N 53W)
  • Apalaí (Apalai), Amapá, Brazil
  • Apirua (3N 53W)
  • Apurui (3N 53W)
  • Aracaret (4N 53W)
  • Aramagoto (2N 54W)
  • Aramisho (2N 54W)
  • Arebato (7N 65W)
  • Arekena (2N 67W)
  • Arhuaco, northeastern Colombia
  • Arigua
  • Arinagoto (4N 63W)
  • Arua (1N 50W)
  • Aruacay, Venezuela
  • Atorai (2N 59W)
  • Atroahy (1S 62W)
  • Auaké, Brazil and Guyana
  • Baniwa (Baniva) (3N 68W), Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela
  • Baraüana (1N 65W)
  • Bonari (3S 58W)
  • Baré (3N 67W)
  • Caberre (4N 71 W)
  • Cadupinago
  • Cariaya (1S 63 W)
  • Carib (Kalinago), Venezuela
  • Carinepagoto, Trinidad
  • Chaguan, Venezuela
  • Chaima, Venezuela
  • Cuaga, Venezuela
  • Cuacua, Venezuela
  • Cumanagoto, Venezuela
  • Guayano, Venezuela
  • Guinau (4N 65W)
  • Hixkaryána, Amazonas, Brazil
  • Hodï, Venezuela
  • Inao (4N 65W)
  • Ingarikó, Brazil, Guyana and Venezuela
  • Jaoi (Yao), Guyana, Trinidad and Venezuela
  • Kali'na, Brazil, Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname, Venezuela
  • Lokono (Arawak, Locono), Guyana, Trinidad, Venezuela
  • Macapa (2N 59W)
  • Macushi, Brazil and Guyana
  • Maipure (4N 67W)
  • Maopityan (2N 59W)
  • Mapoyo (Mapoye), Venezuela
  • Marawan (3N 52W)
  • Mariusa, Venezuela
  • Marourioux (3N 53W)
  • Nepuyo (Nepoye), Guyana, Trinidad and Venezuela
  • Orealla, Guyana
  • Palengue, Venezuela
  • Palikur, Brazil, French Guiana
  • Parauana (2N 63W)
  • Parauien (3S 60W)
  • Pareco, Venezuela
  • Paria, Venezuela
  • Patamona, Roraima, Brazil
  • Pauishana (2N 62W)
  • Pemon (Arecuna), Brazil, Guyana, and Venezuela
  • Piapoco (3N 70W)
  • Piaroa, Venezuela
  • Pino (3N 54W)
  • Piritú, Venezuela
  • Purui (2N 52W)
  • Saliba (Sáliva), Venezuela
  • Sanumá, Venezuela, Brazil
  • Shebayo, Trinidad
  • Sikiana (Chikena, Xikiyana), Brazil, Suriname
  • Tagare, Venezuela
  • Tamanaco, Venezuela
  • Tarumá (3S 60W)
  • Tibitibi, Venezuela
  • Tiriyó (Tarëno), Brazil, Suriname
  • Tocoyen (3N 53W)
  • Tumuza, Venezuela
  • Wai-Wai, Amazonas, Brazil and Guyana
  • Wapishana, Brazil and Guyana
  • Warao (Warrau), Guyana and Venezuela
  • Wayana (Oyana), Pará, Brazil
  • Ya̧nomamö (Yanomami), Venezuela and Amazonas, Brazil
  • Ye'kuana, Venezuela, Brazil

Eastern Brazil

This region includes parts of the Ceará, Goiás, Espírito Santo, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Pará, and Santa Catarina states of Brazil

Andes

The Tawantinsuyu, or fullest extent of the Inca Empire, which includes much of the Andean cultural region

Pacific lowlands

Amazon

Northwestern Amazon

This region includes Amazonas in Brazil; the Amazonas and Putumayo Departments in Colombia; Cotopaxi, Los Rios, Morona-Santiago, Napo, and Pastaza Provinces and the Oriente Region in Ecuador; and the Loreto Region in Peru.

Eastern Amazon

This region includes Amazonas, Maranhão, and parts of Pará States in Brazil.

Southern Amazon

This region includes southern Brazil (Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, parts of Pará, and Rondônia) and Eastern Bolivia (Beni Department).

Southwestern Amazon

This region includes the Cuzco, Huánuco Junín, Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali Regions of eastern Peru, parts of Acre, Amazonas, and Rondônia, Brazil, and parts of the La Paz and Beni Departments of Bolivia.

Gran Chaco

Approximate region of the Gran Chaco

Southern Cone

Patagonian languages at the time of European/African contact

Fjords and channels of Patagonia

Languages

Indigenous languages of the Americas (or Amerindian Languages) are spoken by Indigenous peoples from the southern tip of South America to Alaska and Greenland, encompassing the land masses which constitute the Americas. These Indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinct language families as well as many language isolates and unclassified languages. Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made. According to UNESCO, most of the Indigenous American languages in North America are critically endangered and many of them are already extinct.[75]

Genetic classification

The haplogroup most commonly associated with Indigenous Americans is Haplogroup Q1a3a (Y-DNA).[76] Y-DNA, like (mtDNA), differs from other nuclear chromosomes in that the majority of the Y chromosome is unique and does not recombine during meiosis. This has the effect that the historical pattern of mutations can more easily be studied.[77] The pattern indicates Indigenous peoples of the Americas experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial-peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas.[78][79] The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous American populations.[78]

Human settlement of the Americas occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with an initial 20,000-year layover on Beringia for the founding population.[80][81] The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.[82] The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other Indigenous Americans with various mtDNA mutations.[83][84][85] This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later populations.[86]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "Culture Areas Index". the Canadian Museum of Civilization. Archived from the original on 2013-11-04. Retrieved 2009-08-18.
  2. ^ "Dena'ina." Archived 2016-11-15 at the Wayback Machine Alaska Native Language Center. Accessed December 10, 2016.
  3. ^ "Slavey". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
  4. ^ Indian Claims Commission (1978). Indian Claims Commission Decisions, Volume 11, Part 1. Washington, DC: Native American Rights Fund. pp. 332–33.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Sturtevant and Trigger ix
  6. ^ a b c d "Preamble." Constitution of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma Archived 2013-10-07 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 5 Dec 2012.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag "Cultural Thesaurus" Archived 2010-06-24 at the Wayback Machine. National Museum of the American Indian. Accessed 8 April 2014.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Sturtevant and Trigger 241
  9. ^ a b c d Sturtevant and Trigger 198
  10. ^ a b c d e Goddard 72
  11. ^ Goddard 72 and 237
  12. ^ a b c d e Goddard 237
  13. ^ Goddard 72, 237–38
  14. ^ a b c Goddard 238
  15. ^ Goddard 72 and 238
  16. ^ a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 290
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i Sturtevant and Trigger 161
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h i Sturtevant and Fogelson, 293
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Sturtevant and Fogelson, 81–82
  20. ^ a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 291
  21. ^ Sturtevant and Trigger 96
  22. ^ Brooks, Rebecca Beatrice. "Native American Tribes in Massachusetts". History of Massachusetts. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  23. ^ Sturtevant and Trigger 255
  24. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak Sturtevant and Fogelson, 69
  25. ^ a b c d e f Sturtevant and Fogelson, 205
  26. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Sturtevant and Fogelson, 214
  27. ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 673
  28. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Sturtevant and Fogelson, ix
  29. ^ a b c d e f g h i Sturtevant and Fogelson, 374
  30. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Sturtevant, 617
  31. ^ Folgelson, ed. (2004), p. 315
  32. ^ a b c d Frank, Andrew K. Indian Removal. Archived 2009-09-30 at the Wayback Machine Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Retrieved 10 July 2009.
  33. ^ Hann, John H. (2006). The Native American World Beyond Apalachee. University Press of Florida. pp. 53–56. ISBN 978-0-8130-2982-5.
  34. ^ a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 188
  35. ^ a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 598–99
  36. ^ a b c d e Hann, John H. (2006). The Native American World Beyond Apalachee. University Press of Florida. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-8130-2982-5.
  37. ^ a b c Sturtevant and Fogelson, 302
  38. ^ Haliwa-Saponi Tribe. Archived 2009-04-22 at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved 10 July 2009.
  39. ^ Hann 1993
  40. ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 78, 668
  41. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Hann 1996, 5–13
  42. ^ Milanich 1999, p. 49.
  43. ^ Milanich 1996, p. 46.
  44. ^ Hann 2003:11
  45. ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 190
  46. ^ a b c d e f D'Azevedo, ix
  47. ^ a b c d e f g Pritzker, 230
  48. ^ D'Azevedo, 161–62
  49. ^ a b c Loether, Christopher. "Shoshones" Archived 2014-11-10 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. Retrieved 20 Oct 2013.
  50. ^ a b c Shimkin 335
  51. ^ a b c d e f Murphy and Murphy 306
  52. ^ a b c Murphy and Murphy 287
  53. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Thomas, Pendleton, and Cappannari 280–83
  54. ^ a b c d e f D'Azevedo, 339
  55. ^ a b c d D'Azevedo, 340
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  85. ^ Juliette Saillard; Peter Forster; Niels Lynnerup; Hans-Jürgen Bandelt; Søren Nørby (2000). "mtDNA Variation among Greenland Eskimos. The Edge of the Beringian Expansion". Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, University of Hamburg, Hamburg. Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2009-11-22. The relatively lower coalescence time of the entire haplogroup A2 including the shared sub-arctic branches A2b (Siberians and Inuit) and A2a (Eskimos and Na-Dené) is probably due to secondary expansions of haplogroup A2 from the Beringia area, which would have averaged the overall internal variation of haplogroup A2 in North America.
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References

  • D'Azevedo, Warren L., volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 11: Great Basin. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986. ISBN 978-0-16-004581-3.
  • Hann, John H. "The Mayaca and Jororo and Missions to Them", in McEwan, Bonnie G. ed. The Spanish Missions of "La Florida". Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. 1993. ISBN 0-8130-1232-5.
  • Hann, John H. A History of the Timucua Indians and Missions. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 1996. ISBN 0-8130-1424-7.
  • Hann, John H. (2003). Indians of Central and South Florida: 1513–1763. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2645-8.
  • Heizer, Robert F., volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 8: California. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. ISBN 978-0-16-004574-5.
  • Milanich, Jerald (1999). The Timucua. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-21864-5. Retrieved June 11, 2010.
  • Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-513877-1.
  • Steward, Julian H., editor. Handbook of South American Indians, Volume 4: The Circum-Caribbean Tribes. Smithsonian Institution, 1948.
  • Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Bruce G. Trigger, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Northeast. Volume 15. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. ASIN B000NOYRRA.
  • Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004. ISBN 0-16-072300-0.
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