China–Saudi Arabia relations

China–Saudi Arabia relations
Map indicating locations of China and Saudi Arabia

China
Saudi Arabia

China–Saudi Arabia relations (Chinese: 中沙关系, Arabic: العلاقات السعودية الصينية) refers to the current and historical bilateral relationship between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

The two governments established official diplomatic relations on 21 July 1990. Prior to the 1990s, bilateral relations between Saudi Arabia and the PRC did not exist. In 1975, Saudi Arabia refused to recognize the PRC as a country, despite the PRC's desire to establish relations and acceptance of Saudi Arabian policies.[1] Since the establishment of diplomatic ties, the countries have had an increasingly warm diplomatic relationship.[2]

China and Saudi Arabia are close and strategic allies and have been increasing cooperation in the energy and financial sectors, the Belt and Road Initiative, and has signed numerous deals across several areas. King Salman and Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman also hinted that China could boost its diplomatic footprint in the Middle East, while stating that "Saudi Arabia is willing to work hard with China to promote global and regional peace, security and prosperity".[3][4] It is said that "oil is the backbone of the relationship", while Saudi Arabia has long relied on China for arms sales, including weapons the former could not acquire from anywhere.[5][6]

History

Zheng He's Treasure voyages sent some men to Mecca and Medina.

The first China-Saudi official meeting took place in Oman in November 1985, following several years of heightened contact between the two countries.[7] As of 1989, Saudi Arabia was the only Arab country that still had not established diplomatic ties with the People's Republic of China (although Saudi Arabia did maintain diplomatic relations with Taiwan).[8] After the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 occurred in Beijing in June of that year, Saudi relations with the PRC were upgraded. Despite the event, Saudi Arabia did not provide any criticism of the Chinese government's response. In fact, in August 1989, the Saudi Arabian Foreign Ministry official presented his credentials to the PRC's foreign minister. Less than a year later on 21 July 1990, Prince Bandar bin Sultan, Saudi Arabia's ambassador to the United States, paid a visit to Beijing with an agreement to establish diplomatic relations.[9] A few days later, diplomatic relations were established in Riyadh.[7] At this point, Saudi Arabia ended over forty years of diplomatic ties with Taiwan.[8]

Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, Saudi Arabia was the largest aid donor to China, providing close to €40,000,000 in financial assistance, and an additional €8,000,000 worth of relief materials.[10] Chinese companies in Saudi Arabia have awarded scholarships to Saudi students allowing them to study abroad in China. The Chinese government is also offering scholarships directly to students and professionals for further training.[11]

In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Saudi Arabia, have signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs and other Muslim minority groups in the Xinjiang region.[12] In June 2020, Saudi Arabia was one of 53 countries that backed the Hong Kong national security law at the United Nations.[13]

In December 2022, the Xi Jinping administration intensified relations with Saudi Arabia to improve its energy access as a result of global uncertainties.[14]: 147 

On 10 March 2023, Saudi Arabia and Iran agreed to restore diplomatic ties cut in 2016 after a deal brokered between the two countries by China following secret talks in Beijing.[15]

Bilateral visits

The first diplomatic visit between Saudi Arabia and the People's Republic of China occurred in 1999, when the CCP general secretary Jiang Zemin visited Riyadh, which resulted in the mutual signing of the 1999 Strategic Oil Cooperation agreement. The agreement stipulated that the PRC would open its oil refinery sector to Saudi Arabia if Saudi Arabia would allow for exploration and development opportunities for Chinese investors.[16] While the agreement acted as a starting point for bilateral relations, the results of the agreement were small, as China was not able to use most of the sour crude oil provided by Saudi Arabia's new reserves in Chinese refining facilities.[17]

China-Saudi diplomatic and economic relations grew closer in the 2000s. In 2004, the People's Republic of China and Saudi Arabia initiated a series of regular political meetings. During the same year, Sinopec, China's state-run oil company, signed an agreement to explore gas in the Empty Quarter (Rub' al Khali) in Saudi Arabia. Then, in December 2005, the People's Republic of China and the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) held their first set of formal talks.[6]

In January 2006, King Abdullah was the first ever Saudi head of State to visit China. While in China, King Abdullah signed five major agreements on energy cooperation. The visit was also used as a way to discuss broader economic trade, taxation and technical accords, a vocational training agreement, as well as to finalize an urban development loan for the Saudi Arabian Development Bank in China's Xinjiang province.[18] CCP general secretary Hu Jintao exclaimed that this bilateral cooperation would "write a new chapter of friendly cooperation between China and Saudi Arabia in the new century."[19] His visit was reciprocated by Chinese leader Hu Jintao on April 22 of the same year, as part of a world tour. Hu Jintao was only the second foreign leader in history who was granted permission to address Saudi Arabia's legislative council.[17] During this time, the two leaders supposedly signed several agreements regarding further energy exploration and security collaboration.[20] It is said that Saudi Arabia views economic ties with the PRC in a favorable light because they come with "no strings attached" and focus on economic issues rather than political ones.[21] His only mention of non-economical related affairs was, "war and military force is never a permanent solution to a problem," advising to "persist with a just and fair handling of conflicts and bridging of differences through political means." He did not touch upon democracy or human rights.[17]

In February 2009, Hu visited Saudi Arabia a second time, to "exchange views on international and regional issues of common concern" with King Abdullah.[22] During this visit, Hu commemorated the opening of a cement plant in Saudi Arabia and worked to strengthen bilateral ties.[23]

In February 2019, the Saudi Crown Prince, Muhammad bin Salman, made a visit to China where he met the Chinese leader and a number of high officials.[24] Along with the paramount leader, the crown prince met the Chinese premier, Minister of Foreign Affairs and others where they agreed in boosting the already-strong commercial ties between the two parties.[25] As both the parties have their own long-run strategic plan, China's Belt and Road and Saudi's Vision 2030, they both expressed wellings to collaborate in the implementation of the said strategies.[25] Moreover, the two parties signed a cooperation agreement to enhance researches and studies in the maritime transport industry.[26] The Saudi crown prince agreed to allocate $10 billion to establish a refining and petrochemical complex in China.[27] In the sideline of the visit, the Saudi Crown Prince announced Saudi Arabia's willingness to teach the Chinese language in the Saudi's schools and universities.[28]

Between 7 and 10 December 2022, Chinese leader Xi Jinping visited Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, where he met king Salman, and crown prince and prime minister Mohammed bin Salman. He also met with numerous Arab leaders, including members of the Gulf Cooperation Council.[29] During the meeting, he signed numerous commercial deals with Saudi Arabia and formally elevated the relationship to comprehensive strategic partnership, highest level in China's formal ranking of relations with other countries.[30][31]

Trade and investment

Countries which signed cooperation documents related to the Belt and Road Initiative

China-Saudi trade has increased significantly since 2000. In 2005 alone, trade increased 59%, allowing Saudi Arabia to overtake Angola as China's largest source of oil for the first time. After claiming the throne in 2005, King Abdullah adopted a pro-Asian, "look east" trade policy, with more than half of Saudi oil going to Asia.[32] Saudi-owned Saudi Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC) alone exports over $2 billion in petrochemicals to China on a yearly basis.[33] In 2008, China-Saudi bilateral trade was worth €32,500,000,000,[34] making Saudi Arabia China's largest trading partner in Western Asia.[35] In the first quarter of 2010, Saudi oil export to China has reached over 1 million barrels, exceeding exports to the United States.[36] With the huge increase in China-Saudi trade, Saudi Arabia has emerged as a significant investor in the PRC. Saudis are eager to invest in Chinese oil-industry related projects as a way to secure their status as a major oil provider to China. For example, in 2004, Saudi Arabia's Saudi Aramco Overseas Company invested nearly 1/3 of the $3 billion in funds needed for the construction of a petrochemical facility in China's southeastern Fujian Province, which is planned to process 8 million tons of Saudi crude oil.[33] Upon completion of this project, the refinery would be able to refine triple its capacity and have the ability to process the Saudi "distressed" crude oil that otherwise could not be refined in China. Further, in 2006, the PRC and Saudi Arabia agreed to jointly construct an oil storage facility on China's Hainan Island and Saudi Arabia invited Chinese firms to participate in infrastructure development worth $624 billion.[11] On April 6, 2012, SABIC announced a new investment plan of $100 million to set up a new technology center in the Kangqiao area of Shanghai. Three days earlier on April 3, SABIC launched the second phase of construction projects for petrochemical plants in the cities of Tianjin and Chongqing, which were part of the US$11 billion project with the state-run Sinopec Group to continue boosting output at polycarbonate production complexes.[37] Besides oil-related companies, other major Saudi companies - such as the Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority (SAGIA) and Saudi Arabian Airlines have established offices in China. In 2006, Saudi Arabia invested $1.1 billion in China, the first significant investment since 2000. Likewise, in 2006, China's largest aluminum producer - Aluminum of China (Chalco) partnered with Saudi companies to build a $3 billion aluminum facility in Saudi Arabia.[11] In 2009, China Railway Company won a $1.8 billion bid to build a monorail in Mecca as a way to help transport pilgrims.[33]

In May 2019, China's import of Saudi crude oil has increased by 43%. This has made Saudi Arabia the top supplier to China.[38] Saudi Arabia is China's largest trading partner in the Gulf, largely because of the amount of oil China imports from it.[14]: 137 

Military

While official diplomatic relations between Saudi Arabia and China were not established until the 1990s, defense relations began beforehand in the 1980s. When the United States refused to sell Saudi Arabia long-range fuel tanks for Saudi F-15 fighters, Prince Khalid bin Sultan traveled to China to purchase ballistic missiles.[39] Saudi Arabia arranged a deal with China in 1988 to obtain between fifty and sixty nuclear-payload-capable CSS-2 intermediate-range ballistic missiles.[33] Thomas Woodrow commented: "The Chinese in essence hoodwinked the Saudis into buying an antique missile system worthless without its nuclear warhead."[40] After this interaction, there is no more documented evidence of similar transactions. Some think China-Saudi strategic military cooperation has continued to grow. Others believe China has based more than one thousand of its military advisers at Saudi missile installations. Press reports indicate that China has offered Saudi Arabia the opportunity to purchase modern missile systems. (i.e. 373-mile range CSS-6, 1,118-mile range CSS-5 solid-fueled missiles, 3,418-mile range CSS-2 intercontinental ballistic missile.) China is one of the few countries supplying this type of technology and as such is capable of demanding a cash transaction.[33] Saudi Arabia publicly displayed them for the first time in 2014.[41]

In January 2014, Newsweek revealed that Saudi Arabia had secretly bought a number of CSS-5 medium-range ballistic missiles in 2007. They also said that the American CIA had allowed the deal to go through as long as the missiles were modified to not be able to carry nuclear warheads. After the gulf war, the Saudis and the CIA worked together to covertly allow the purchase of Chinese CSS-5s. The CSS-5 is solid-fueled instead of liquid-fueled like the CSS-2, so it takes less time to prepare for launch. It is accurate to 30 meters CEP, allowing it to attack specific targets like compounds or palaces. The Saudis are not known to possess mobile launchers, but may use the same 12 launchers originally bought with the CSS-2s. The number of CSS-5 missiles that were bought is unknown. Newsweek speculates that details of the deal being made public is part of Saudi deterrence against Iran.[42] In Sep 2014, Saudi Arabia purchased CSS-5s ballistic missiles from China to defend Mecca and Medina, said Dr. Anwar Eshki, a retired major general in the Saudi armed forces.[43] Saudi significantly escalated its ballistic missile program with help from China according to US intel.[44]

Saudi used the Chinese-made PLZ-45 howitzers and CAIG Wing Loong drones to bomb Houthi rebels during the Military Intervention in Yemen.[45][46] A license to produce Chinese-made CASC Rainbow (CH) drones was granted to Saudi Arabia in 2017.[47]

China and Saudi held first joint naval drills in 2019.[48]

In 2021, CNN reported that satellite images indicated that Saudi Arabia was, with Chinese assistance, manufacturing solid fueled missiles of an undetermined type.[49]

In March 2022, Saudi Arabia's Advanced Communications and Electronics Systems Co (ACES) signed a deal with China Electronics Technology group to manufacture unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV payload systems).[50]

Nuclear cooperation

On January 15, 2012, China and Saudi Arabia signed a deal signifying increased nuclear cooperation. According to Saudi Arabia, the goal is "to enhance cooperation between the two countries in the development and use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes." The deal sets the stage for strengthened scientific, technological, and economic cooperation between the People's Republic of China and Saudi Arabia, focusing on areas such as maintenance and development of nuclear power plants and research reactors, as well as the supply of nuclear fuel components. This agreement is Saudi Arabia's fourth nuclear agreement, following such deals with France, Argentina and South Korea. The agreement was signed at the end of Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao's first trip to Saudi Arabia as part of a six-day tour to the Middle East.[51] Saudi expanded its nuclear programme with help from China according to US intel.[52]

Public opinion

In a 2015 public opinion poll, 61.3% of Saudi Arabians expressed a favorable view of China, with 34.2% being very favorable, while only 28.5% were unfavorable.[53]

See also

References

  1. ^ Hashim S. Behbehani. (1981). China's Foreign Policy in the Arab World, 1955-75. London: Kegan Paul International Ltd. Print.
  2. ^ Charlotte Gao (August 2017). "Closer Ties: China And Saudi Arabia Sign $70 Billion in New Deals". The Diplomat.
  3. ^ "China's Xi Jinping calls Saudi king with pledge to boost ties". South China Morning Post.
  4. ^ "Saudi Arabia, China Sign Deals Worth Up to $65 Billion". Foreign Policy.
  5. ^ "A Rising China Eyes the Middle East". The Century Foundation. 6 April 2017.
  6. ^ a b Harsh V. Pant. (September (2006)). Saudi Arabia Woos China and India. Middle East Quarterly 13(4) : 45-52.
  7. ^ a b Yetiv, Steve A., and Lu Chunling. (2007). "China, Global Energy, And The Middle East." Middle East Journal 61(2): 200-218.
  8. ^ a b T.Y. Wang. (1993). "Competing For Friendship: The Two Chinas And Saudi Arabia." Arab Studies Quarterly 15(3): 63.
  9. ^ Nawaf E. Obaid, Amy Jaffe, Edward L. Morse, Chady
  10. ^ "Chinese president arrives in Riyadh at start of 'trip of friendship, cooperation'", Xinhua, February 10, 2009
  11. ^ a b c Alterman, Jon B. "Chinese Soft Power and its Implications for the United States." China's Soft Power in the Middle East. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2012. <https://forums.csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/090310_chinesesoftpower__chap5.pdf[permanent dead link]>.
  12. ^ "Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies?". The Diplomat. 15 July 2019.
  13. ^ Dave Lawler (2 July 2020). "The 53 countries supporting China's crackdown on Hong Kong". Axios. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
  14. ^ a b Garlick, Jeremy (2024). Advantage China: Agent of Change in an Era of Global Disruption. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-350-25231-8.
  15. ^ Gans, Jared (11 March 2023). "Five things to know about the Iran-Saudi deal brokered by China". The Hill. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  16. ^ Henry Lee and Dan A. Shalmon. (2007). Searching For Oil: China's Oil Initiatives in the Middle East. China's Foreign Policy in the Arab World, 1955-75. Boston: Harvard University.
  17. ^ a b c Ben Simfendorfer. (2009). The New Silk Road: How a Rising Arab World is Turning Away from the West and Rediscovering China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Print.
  18. ^ "China, Saudi Arabia Forge Closer Relationship," China Daily (Beijing), 24 January 2006.
  19. ^ Quoted in "China and Saudi Arabia Sign Historic Energy Deal," Taipei Times, January 24, 2006, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/biz/archives/2006/01/24/2003290537.
  20. ^ Alfred B. Prados and Christopher M. Blanchard. (2006). Congressional Research Service. Washington D.C.: Congressional Research Service.
  21. ^ "Avoiding Political Talk, Saudis and Chinese Build Trade," The New York Times, 23 April 2006.
  22. ^ [1] "Chinese president arrives in Riyadh at start of 'trip of friendship, cooperation'"], Xinhua, February 10, 2009
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  24. ^ "Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman arrives in China". Arab News. 21 February 2019. Retrieved 21 February 2019.
  25. ^ a b "Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman visits Great Wall of China". Arab News. 21 February 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2019.
  26. ^ "Saudi-Chinese pact to enhance maritime industry". Arab News. 23 February 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2019.
  27. ^ "Saudi Arabia strikes $10bn China deal". Saudi Gazette. 22 February 2019. Retrieved 28 February 2019.
  28. ^ "Saudi Arabia plans to include Chinese language in education curriculum". Saudi Gazette. 22 February 2019. Retrieved 28 February 2019.
  29. ^ Gambrell, John (10 December 2022). "China's Xi vows to buy more Mideast oil as US focus wanes". Associated Press. Retrieved 11 December 2022.
  30. ^ Kalin, Stephen (8 December 2022). "China's Xi Jinping Deepens Saudi Ties in Pivotal Trip". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 11 December 2022.
  31. ^ Kalin, Stephen; Faucon, Benoit (10 March 2023). "Saudi Arabia, Iran Restore Relations in Deal Brokered by China". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
  32. ^ Looking East: The Saudis are Hedging their Bets. The Economist 9 Dec. 2010. 29 Apr. 2012.
  33. ^ a b c d e Kemp, Geoffrey. The East Moves West: India, China, and Asia's Growing Presence in the Middle East. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2010. Print.
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  35. ^ "Chinese president's visit to Saudi Arabia to show friendship", Xinhua, 10 February 2009
  36. ^ China exceeds US in Saudi oil export, The New York Times, March 10, 2010
  37. ^ "Saudi Arabia boosts investment in China｜WantChinaTimes.com". Archived from the original on 18 April 2015. Retrieved 30 April 2012.
  38. ^ "China's crude oil imports from Saudi Arabia up 43%". Arab News. 25 May 2019. Retrieved 31 May 2019.
  39. ^ "Why Did Saudi Arabia Buy Chinese Missiles?". Foreign Policy. 30 January 2014. Retrieved 3 January 2020.
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  41. ^ "Saudi Arabia unveils part of strategic missile force - a deterrent move against Iran?". Defense Update. 2 May 2014. Retrieved 9 May 2014.
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  43. ^ "Saudi Arabia admits to purchase of Chinese DF-21 missile". Army Recognition. 22 September 2014. Retrieved 9 January 2020.
  44. ^ "Exclusive: US intel shows Saudi Arabia escalated its missile program with help from China". CNN. 5 June 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2020.
  45. ^ "Saudis Use Chinese-made Cannons in Yemen". 18 March 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2020.
  46. ^ "Houthi Rebels claim to have downed an Apache helicopter and a UAV". War is Boring. 3 December 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2020.
  47. ^ "Chinese drone factory in Saudi Arabia first in Middle East". SCMP. 26 March 2017. Retrieved 9 January 2020.
  48. ^ "China, Saudi Arabia launch joint naval exercise -media". Reuters. 19 November 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2020.
  49. ^ Cohen, Zachary (23 December 2021). "US intel and satellite images show Saudi Arabia is now building its own ballistic missiles with help of China". CNN. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
  50. ^ "Saudi firm ACES partners with China Electronics to locally manufacture UAV payload systems". Arab News. 6 March 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2023.
  51. ^ Said, Summer. "Saudi Arabia, China Sign Nuclear Cooperation Pact". WSJ. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  52. ^ "U.S. Examines Whether Saudi Nuclear Program Could Lead to Bomb Effort". The New York Times. 5 August 2020. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
  53. ^ "Public Opinion in Saudi Arabia". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org.

External links

  • Embassy of China in Saudi Arabia Archived 11 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine
  • Embassy of Saudi Arabia in China
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